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GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •   BOSTON   •    CHICAGO    •   DALLAS 
ATLANTA    •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON    •  BOMBAY   •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


BY 

SUSAN  ISABEL  FRAZEE 

PASADENA  HIGH  SCHOOL 

AND 
CHAUNCEY  WETMORE  WELLS 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1921 

All  rights  reserved 


COPTRIGHT,    1921 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  July,  1921 


PREFACE 

The  cynic  has  remarked  that  there  are  but  two  sorts  of 
person  who  can  profit  by  the  study  of  formal  grammar:  a  very 
young  person  whose  speech-habits  are  unformed,  and  an 
older  person  who  has  formed  bad  habits  he  wishes  to  correct. 
For  the  former,  the  cynic  adds,  grammar,  being  a  science, 
comes  too  early;  what  he  needs  is  a  good  example,  practice, 
and  incidental  correction,  since  use  gains  by  use  rather  than 
by  rule.  For  the  latter,  grammar  comes  too  late,  since  he  is 
either  past  helping  or  he  must  be  reformed  bit  by  bit ;  he  also 
needs  a  good  example,  practice,  and  incidental  correction. 
Grammar,  the  cynic  concludes,  is  a  useless  study. 

This  little  book  audaciously  pretends  to  be  useful  to  both 
these  persons.  But  there  is  another  person  whose  habits  of 
thought  no  less  than  of  speech  are  in  process  of  forming;  he  is 
enrolled  in  the  upper  class  of  an  elementary  school,  in  the 
lower  class  of  a  high  school,  or  in  the  junior  high  school,  and 
in  beginning  his  indispensable  training  in  formal  composition 
finds  himself  baffled  by  mere  problems  of  correct  grammar, 
and  therefore,  much  hindered  in  expression.  His  need  is 
great.  Under  the  illusory  title  of  "English"  he  is  in  many 
cases  being  taught  a  mixture  of  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  litera- 
ture, with  somewhat  indefinite  ideas  on  each  and  no  definite 
ideas  at  all  as  to  the  right  relations  of  one  branch  to  another. 
Properly  enough,  composition  is  being  emphasized  in  his 
training,  but  often  without  any  sound  instruction  in  the 
grammatical  functions  of  words,  phrases  and  clauses  in 
a  sentence;  structural  grammar  particularly  is  being  ne- 
glected. This  book  is  meant  for  this  person  especially; 
it  is,  so  to  speak,  aimed  at  his  head. 

V 

4G0008 


VI  PREFACE 

For  this  person's  sake  the  authors  have  tried  to  distinguish 
their  work  by  three  things:  (1)  its  colloquial  manner,  (2)  its 
informal  method,  and  (3)  its  examples. 

We  have  written  colloquially  within  the  limits  set  by  good 
taste,  in  the  hope  of  saying  things  in  words  a  high-school  boy 
will  recognize  at  least,  and  perhaps  accept  as  like  his  own. 
We  have  arranged  the  book  as  informally  as  we  could  without 
destroying  its  systematic  organization,  relegating  to  the 
appendices  most  of  the  paradigms,  outlines,  and  schemes  of 
analysis,  those  bugbears  of  the  "young  idea."  We  have 
phrased  the  definitions  and  drawn  the  distinctions  as  simply, 
but  as  strictly,  as  possible.  Minor  distinctions  we  have  put 
into  frequent  notes  and  remarks. 

Perhaps  we  have  taken  the  greatest  pains  with  the  ex- 
amples, which  are,  briefly,  of  two  kinds,  the  literary  and  the 
colloquial.  Those  who  object  to  using  literary  examples  on 
the  ground  that  they  stimulate  a  disgust  rather  than  a  taste 
for  literature,  need  only  to  omit  them  in  teaching.  They  may 
at  least  serve  to  catch  the  wandering  attention  of  a  browsing 
boy,  and  stimulate  interest  while  they  emphasize  grammatical 
points,  for  they  are  fresh  and  not  hackneyed.  The  colloquial 
examples,  meant  to  fill  everyday  needs,  are  cast  in  the  terms 
of  everyday  speech.  The  best  teachers  will  go  further  and 
supplement  if  not  supplant  these  examples  with  those  of  their 
own  choosing,  preferably  with  those  taken  from  the  very 
words  and  experiences  of  the  pupils  before  them. 

The  authors  hope  that  their  plan  of  exemplifying  in  com- 
plete sentences  will  be  conscientiously  followed.  Psycholog- 
ically nothing  can  be  better  to  form  or  to  (Correct  speech- 
habits  than  the  practice  of  definite  predication,  for  by  way  of 
predication  every  sentence  states  a  judgment,  and  by  means 
of  it  the  pupil  may  learn  to  attach  correct  speech-uses  to 
definite  ideas.  Secondarily,  nothing  in  grammatical  study 
can  be  of  more  direct  and  constant  support  to  the  study  of 


PREFACE  Vii 

composition.  Even  the  study  of  literature  may  profit  by  this 
practice,  since  the  one  fundamental  difficulty  in  understand- 
ing books  is  in  grasping  the  central  meaning  of  each  successive 
sentence,  and  the  habit  of  seeing  sentences  as  essentially 
subject  and  predicate  directs  the  mind  to  the  essential  and  so 
trains  it  to  distinguish  the  important  from  the  unimportant. 

The  authors  wish  to  thank  Miss  Marian  Segner  of  the 
Pasadena  High  School,  Miss  Mary  Hill  of  San  Diego  High 
School  and  Professor  E.  P.  Cubberly  of  Stanford  University 
for  valuable  criticism  and  suggestions. 

S.  I.  F. 
C.  W.  W. 
Pasadena,  Cal. 

April,  1921. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction 1 

CHAPTER 

I.  Nouns 10 

Kinds:  Common,  proper,  abstract,  collective 10 

Gender 12 

Number 14 

Case 21 

II.  Pronouns 32 

Kinds:  Personal,  relative,  interrogative,  demonstra- 
tive, indefinite 32 

Gender 33 

Number 33 

Case 33 

Correct  use 39 

III.  Verbs 46 

The  seven  distinctions 47 

Verbs  proper:  Transitive,  intransitive;  Voice 49 

Auxiliaries 53 

Modes 56 

Verbals 60 

Tenses 65 

Verb-forms 71 

Person  and  Number 73 

Principal  parts 75 

IV.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs 80 

A.  Adjectives 81 

Kinds:  limiting,  pronominal,  descriptive 81 

Comparison 86 

Care  in  the  use  of  adjectives 89 

iz 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

B.  Adverbs 93 

Kinds:  simple,  conjunctive,  responsive 93 

Comparison 94 

Correct  use  of  negatives 96 

V.  Prepositions 102 

Kinds:  simple,  compound 102 

Correct  use 104 

VI.  Interjections Ill 

VII.  Conjunctions 112 

Kinds:  coordinating,  subordinating 113 

Correct  use 117 

VIII.  The  Sentence 120 

Forms  and  kinds 121 

Clauses  and  phrases 128 

Analysis 135 

Appendices: 

A.  Conjugation  of  the  verb 143 

B.  Analysis 154 

C.  The  Sentence:  Essentials,  Modifiers 157 

D.  Parsing 160 


DEDICATION 

Dear   Tom: 

This  book  is  dedicated  to  you  and  to  Dick  and  Harry, 
and  to  Betty  and  Polly  and  Jane  as  well.  Why?  Because 
quite  recently  each  of  you  has  been  overheard  to  say  that  you 
"see  no  sense  to  the  study  of  grammar." 

Really?  Do  you  mean  that  seriously?  Perhaps  you  have 
heard  English  called  ''the  grammarless  tongue"  by  those  who 
should  know  better.  But  even  you  must  know  that  saying 
to  be  nonsense  except  as  applied  to  the  prattle  of  babies  or 
those  sign-languages,  so  called,  which  are  also  tongueless 
tongues.  Every  language  has  a  grammar,  and  its  grammar 
should  be  known  by  those  who  use  it.  Do  you  realize  that 
your  protest  amounts  to  this:  *T  see  no  sense  in  understand- 
ing the  correct  use  of  my  mother-tongue"  ?  Hardly!  You 
probably  meant  something  more  like  this:  ''I  see  no  sense 
to  learning  endless  rules  and  fine  distinctions  about  which  not 
one  man  in  ten  cares  a  copper."  If  pushed  to  the  wall  you 
would  probably  add,  "Oh,  of  course  I  don't  want  to  talk  like 
an  unlettered  backwoodsman,  but  I  don't  want  to  talk  like  a 
schoolmaster  either."  And  that  would  be  a  very  sensible 
remark.  Some  teachers  in  schools  (and  in  colleges  no  less) 
appear  to  set  value  upon  long  and  strange  words  and  upon 
long  and  intricate  sentences,  seeming  to  have  forgotten,  if 
indeed  they  ever  have  known,  that  language  is  speech,  the 
common  tongue  of  common  men.  You  have  no  patience 
with  the  "musty  schoolroom  product"  ;  and  you  are  right. 
But  let  one  tactfully  suggest  that  you  are  in  little  danger  of 
the  latter  fault.      Of  the  former? — Well,  confess  that  you 


xii  DEDICATION 

sometimes  catch  yourself  in  blunders  you  regret  and  would 
like  to  correct. 

No,  it  isn't  your  use  of  slang  you  regret,  and  it  isn't  that 
you  use  nothing  but  slang,  or  almost  nothing.  Of  that  you 
are  quite  unashamed.  You  know,  as  everyone  knows  but  the 
old  fogies,  that  slang  is  often  amusing, 

"  a  little  time,  while  it  is  new," 

that  it  is  sometimes  apt  and  is  always  convenient;  besides,  it 
shocks  the  proper  person,  and  that  alone  is  enough  to  com- 
mend it  to  you.  But  then,  slang  isn't  necessarily  ''  bad  gram- 
mar" ;  a  boy  may  use  mountains  of  slang  yet  make  no  error 
in  grammar.  True,  he  is  not  likely  to  speak  grammatically 
and  slangily  too,  but  he  possibly  may.  What  you  regret  is 
that  every  now  and  then  you  let  slip  things  you  know  to  be 
wrong  the  moment  they  are  out,  and  that  you  are  confused 
into  saying  other  things  that  seem  to  you  "all  right"  but  that 
somehow  bring  a  light  smile  to  the  lips  of  the  well  educated, 
a  smile  that  makes  you  vaguely  uncomfortable,  though  of 
course  you  brazen  it  out.  You  know  well  enough,  inside  of 
you,  that  the  men  and  women  you  respect  most  don't  talk 
that  way.  Only  the  other  day  when  you  were  looking  for  a 
job  (as  you  put  it  in  good,  homely  English)  you  remember 
how  you  detected  Mr.  Robinson,  your  hoped-for  employer, 
looking  curiously  at  you  as  he  listened;  you'd  have  given 
something  to  know  just  what  the  mistake  was  you  must  have 
made.  And  Mr.  Robinson's,  ''I'll  keep  you  in  mind,"  was 
rather  unsatisfactory.  You  felt  as  you  walked  out  the  door 
that  you  had  spoiled  your  chances  by  slipshod  speech,  and 
you  wished  with  all  your  heart  that  you  had  kept  a  closer 
watch  over  your  tongue  or  had  learned  a  better  habit  of 
talking  when  you  were  in  school.  It  came  over  you  then  that 
a  man  can  carry  a  hod,  plow  a  furrow,  shingle  a  roof,  drive  a 
car  and  yet  murder  the  King's  English,  but  that  he  cannot  do 


DEDICATION  xiii 

so  and  hope  to  get  forward  in  the  world,  run  a  large  business 
or  an  office,  practice  law  or  medicine  or  engineering,  because 
people  will  put  him  down  for  an  ignoramus.  You  wondered  if 
there  weren't  a  book  some  where  that  would  help  to  set  you 
right. 

Well,  not  the  best  book  in  the  world  can  surely  correct  a 
bad  habit;  even  reading  the  Bible  doesn't  always  keep  people 
from  sinning,  apparently.  And  were  this  a  much  better  book 
than  we  could  make,  it  wouldn't  keep  your  tongue  in  the 
strait  and  narrow  way.  But  if  you  are  prone  to  stray  out 
of  that  way — and  who  isn't — this  book  can  help  you  to  get 
back  into  it. 

There  are  just  two  things  necessary  to  mastering  anything: 
the  first  is  to  understand  it,  and  the  second  is  to  practice  it. 
Yes,  we  often  learn  to  understand  by  practicing  and  .we 
generally  acquire  good  habits  before  we  understand  the 
reasons  for  them.  It  would  be  possible  for  you  to  use  your 
mother-tongue  correctly  without  studying  grammar  if  you 
were  placed  where  you  could  always  hear  it  correctly  spoken. 
Even  so  you  would  learn  it  as  the  parrot  learns,  by  imitation 
and  without  knowing  why.  However,  you  are  not  placed 
where  you  can  always  hear  the  mother-tongue  correctly 
spoken.  At  home?  Well,  of  course  they  don't  say  ''I  seen" 
and  "  I  done."  But  you  know  yourself  the  sort  of  speech  you 
are  used  to  hearing  on  the  street  and  upon  the  ball  field,  and 
you  know  that  there  too  you  have  learned  by  imitation 
speech-habits  you  would  like  to  un-learn.  Now  to  un-learn 
(if  you  will  permit  the  word)  you  must  understand  why,  and 
understanding  why  in  the  case  of  language,  as  in  that  of  any 
machine  or  instrument,  means  knowing  the  parts  themselves 
and  how  they  fit  and  work  together. 

Consider!  If  someone  were  to  give  you  a  six-cylinder 
touring  car  on  condition  that  you  learn  to  know  all  its  parts 
so  exactly  that  you  could  take  the  car  apart  and  put  it 


xiv  DEDICATION 

together  again  correctly,  and  know  just  the  right  name  and 
use  and  place  of  every  part  so  thoroughly  that  you  would 
know  what  was  wrong  when  the  car  was  out  of  order; 
would  you  refuse  because  of  the  work  it  might  require? 
If  you  stop  to  think,  it  is  quite  as  worth  your  while  to 
understand  your  language,  the  car  that  carries  your  thoughts, 
as  it  is  to  understand  a  touring  car.  Just  as  you  cannot  run 
and  keep  in  order  an  automobile  without  knowing  its  parts 
and  their  relations  to  the  whole  machine,  so  with  your  lan- 
guage: you  must  begin  by  learning  its  parts  as  they  fit  and 
work  together  in  the  whole  sentence,  if  you  are  to  understand 
and  use  the  language  rightly. 

And  what  a  language  it  is!  Has  that  ever  occurred  to  you? 
Is  there  anywhere  in  the  world,  has  there  ever  been,  so  good  a 
vehicle  alike  for  pleasure  and  for  use,  for  poetry  and  for 
business?  It  has  been  kept  going  now  for  more  than  five 
centuries  pretty  much  as  it  is,  with  alterations,  certainly,  new 
devices  added  and  older,  clumsier  ones  taken  out;  there  are 
always  new  patents  pending.  It  has  withstood  an  appalling 
amount  of  abuse,  too,  at  the  hands  of  bunglers  and  cheap- 
jacks,  and  is  in  need  of  continual  repairs.  Yet  the  running- 
gear  is  in  as  good  order  as  the  best.  It  has  cost  something, 
all  this;  the  total  bill  if  you  alone  had  to  defray  it  would  ruin 
you.  Others  have  paid  the  costs,  and  now  hand  the  car  along 
to  you.  Here  it  is  then,  and  it  is  yours  to  keep  and  to  run. 
This  book  is,  so  to  speak,  a  manual  for  keeping  it  in  order,  so 
that  when  you  pass  it  on  to  other  Toms,  Dicks,  and  Harrys, 
Bettys,  Pollys  and  Janes,  they  may  find  it  none  the  worse 
for  your  having  used  it. 

With  sincere  regards, 


Your  Friends 


The  Authors. 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


GRAMMAR  AND   PRACTICE 


INTRODUCTION 

Language  and  Grammar 

Grammar  is  one  of  the  several  sciences  of  languages. 
Philology,  the  science  of  the  history  and  construction  of 
language,  includes,  among  others:  phonetics,  a  science  of 
articulate  sounds;  etymology,  a  science  of  the  derivation  of 
words;  and  grammar,  a  science  of  the  use  of  words. 

Grammar  is  that  science  of  language  which  defines  its 
parts  and  states  the  laws  governing  their  uses  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

When  thinking  men  realized  that  they  must  understand 
their  language  if  they  were  to  use  it  intelligently,  they  began 
to  study  it  just  as  the  scientist  studied  plants  and  minerals 
and  animals;  and  just  as  the  botanist  learned  that  all  the 
many  thousand  plants  of  the  plant  world  might  be  divided 
and  classified  into  different  groups  and  families,  so  the 
grammarian  found  that  words  might  be  divided  into  eight 
different  groups,  called  parts-of-speech.  and  that  the  thou- 
sands and  thousands  of  new  words  yet  to  be  born  into  the 
language  would  all  fit  into  these  groups.  Grammar  is  the 
working  out  of  this  discovery. 

The  Sentence 

You  must  of  course  define  the  parts-of-speech  before  you 
can  understand  the  laws  of  their  uses.    To  begin  with,  why 


2  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

are  tliere  eight  parts-of -speech,  and  not  seven  or  nine? 
Because  there  are  eight  several  uses  to  which  words  can 
be  put  in  a  sentence.    But  what  is  a  sentence? 

A  group  of  words  so  related  that  they  express  one  com- 
plete thought  is  called  a  sentence. 

Now  not  every  sentence  contains  all  the  eight  parts-of- 
speech.  The  sentence,  John  won,  states  one  complete 
thought  with  but  two  parts-of-speech,  expressed  in  two 
words;  the  sentence,  Oh,  how  happy  we  were  when  we  heard 
of  his  victory!  states  one  complete  thought  with  eight  parts- 
of-speech,  expressed  in  eleven  words.  To  express  a  com- 
plete thought  you  must  use  at  least  two  parts-of-speech; 
you  may  use  all  eight  parts.  To  express  a  complete  thought 
you  must  use  at  least  two  words;  you  may  use  ten,  twenty, 
a  hundred  or  more  if  you  can  make  them  work  together. 

The  two  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are:  (1)  the  sub- 
ject (what  you  talk  about),  and  (2)  the  predicate  (what 
you  say  of  the  subject). 

The  Predicate 

There  are  two  kinds  of  predicate: 

The  simple  predicate  consists  of  the  verb  and  nothing 
else: 

The  letters  have-come. 

The  packages  have-heen-mailed. 

The  compound  predicate  is  of  three  varieties: 

1.  the  verb  with  its  object; 

The  postman  has-brought  (verb)  the  letters  (object). 

2.  the  verb  with  its  complement; 

My  grandfather  is-getting  (verb)  old  (adjective-complement);  yet 
he  seeyns  (verb)  young  (adjective-complement). 


INTRODUCTION  3 

The  Mayor's  name  is  (verb)  Smith  (noun-complement);  he  will- 
become  (verb)  President  (noun-complement). 

3.  the  verb  with  its  object  and  complement; 

The  people  will-elect  (verb)  Mr.  Smith  (object)  President  (noun- 
complement)  . 

Modifiers  and  Connectives 

All  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence  are  modifiers  of  the 
subject,  or  of  the  predicate  or  some  part  of  it,  or  of  an- 
other modifier,  or  of  the  sentence  as  a  whole;  or  they  are 
connectives: 

Yes  indeed,  (modifiers  of  the  whole  sentence)  the  plain  (modifiers 
of  the  subject)  people  elected  and  (connective)  reelected  Mr.  Wilson 
to  (connective)  the  presidency;  the  (modifier  of  the  subject)  poli- 
ticians merely  (modifier  of  the  verb)  nominated  him. 

To  know,  then,  what  part  of  speech  a  word  is:  (1)  see 
what  is  its  function  or  use  in  the  sentence — subject,  predi- 
cate, modifier,  connective;  (2)  see  whether  the  word  or  that 
form  of  the  word  may  be  used  in  that  function.  In  these 
ways  you  may  know  whether  it  has  been  correctly,  or,  as 
we  say,  grammatically  used. 

Let  us  take  the  following  sentence  apart,  learn  of  how 
many  different  parts-of-speech  it  is  composed,  and  from 
their  use,  classify  them: 

Oh!  I  wish  I  could-have-gone  with  Fred  and  Richard  when 
they  rode  from  Pasadena  to  Boston  in  their  touring  car. 

Oh  expresses  deep  feeling  and  is  related  to  all  the  rest 
of  the  sentence;  therefore  it  is  an  interjection. 

/  takes  the  place  of  a  person's  name;  therefore  it  is  a 
pronoun. 

Wish  expresses  action;  therefore  it  is  a  verb. 

/  is  another  pronoun. 


4  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Could-have-gone,  taken  in  sum,  expresses  action,  and  there- 
fore forms  the  verb. 

With,  placed  before  the  names  Fred  and  Richard  relates 
them  to  could-have-gone;  therefore  it  is  a  pre-position. 

Fred  and  Richard  name  the  boys  who  rode;  therefore 
they  are  nouns. 

And  joins  the  names  Fred  and  Richard;  therefore  it  is  a 
con-junction. 

When  is  added  to  the  verb  could-have-gone  to  modify  its 
meaning  by  showing  time;  therefore  it  is  an  adverb. 

They  takes  the  place  of  the  nouns  Fred  and  Richard; 
therefore  it  is  a  pronoun. 

Rode  expresses  action;  therefore  it  is  a  verb. 

From  placed  before  the  noun  Pasadena  relates  it  to  rode; 
therefore  it  is  a  pre-position. 

Pasadena  is  the  name  of  a  place;  therefore  it  is  a  noun. 

T'o  placed  before  the  noun  Boston  relates  it  to  rode; 
therefore  it  is  a  pre-position. 

Boston  is  the  name  of  a  place;  therefore  it  is  a  noun. 

In  placed  before  the  noun  car  relates  it  to  rode;  therefore 
it  is  a  pre-position. 

Their  takes  the  place  of  the  names  Fred  and  Richard; 
therefore  it  is  a  pronoun. 

Touring  describes  the  noun  car;  therefore  it  is  an  ad- 
jective. 

Car  is  the  name  of  something;  therefore  it  is  a  noun. 

In  this  sentence  we  find: 

1.  Five  nouns — Fred,  Richard,  Boston,  Pasadena,  car; 

2.  Four  pronouns — I,  I,  they,  their; 

3.  One  adjective — touring; 

4.  Three  verbs — wish,  could-have-gone,  rode; 

5.  One   adverb — when; 

6.  Four  prepositions — with,  from,  to,  in; 


INTRODUCTION  5 

7.  One  conjunction^ — and; 

8.  One   interjection — oh! 

Now  let  us  classify  and  define  each  one  of  these  eight 
parts-of-speech : 

1.  A  noun  is  a  word  used  to  name  a  person,  place,  or 
thing. 

2.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  which  takes  the  place  of  a 
noun. 

3.  An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  describe  a 
noun,  or  pronoun. 

4.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  action,  state,  or  being. 

5.  An  adverb  is  a  word  added  to  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or 
another  adverb,  to  modify  its  meaning. 

6.  A  preposition  is  a  word  placed  before  a  noun,  pro- 
noun, or  other  substantive,  to  show  relation  between  it 
and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

7.  An  interjection  is  a  word  of  exclamation  which 
modifies  the  sentence  as  a  whole  or  stands  by  itself. 

8.  A  conjunction  is  a  connecting  word  used  to  join 
diffierent  parts  of  the  sentence. 

Note,  however,  that  many  a  word  may  be  used  as  one 
part-of-speech  in  one  sentence,  and  as  another  partnDf- 
speech  in  another  sentence  or  part  of  the  same  sentence. 
A  word  may  be  a  verb  at  one  time,  and  a  noun  at  another; 
an  adjective  now,  and  bye  and  bye,  an  adverb;  even  oc- 
casionally an  adjective  and  presently  a  pronoun.  All 
depends  on  its  use  in  the  sentence. 

To  arms!  (noun)  The  enemy  is  upon  us.  Arm!  (verb)  The  enemy 
is  upon  us. 

Good  (adjective)  wear  (noun)  can  only  be  had  if  you  wear  (verb) 
the  best  goods  (noun). 


6  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Oh,  (interjection)  I  can't  see  why  (adverb)  we  have  to  study 
grammar! 

Your  ''oh''  (noun)  is  a  word  of  protest;  yoni  ''why"  (noun)  is  a 
word  of  question. 

You  have  done  well  (adverb)  enough  (adverb);  why  not  let  well- 
enough  (compound  noun)  alone? 

Enough  (noun)  has  been  done;  enough  (adjective)  harm  at  least. 

Some  (adjective)  people  use  words  as  if  they  were  ninepins  to 
be  knocked  about,  but,  thank  Heaven,  there  still  are  some  (pronoun) 
who  know  better. 

Expletives 

Besides  their  ordinary  uses  certain  words  are  employed 
as  expletives,  or  filling-out  words;  that  is,  they  are  not 
essential  to  the  sentence,  but  they  lend  idiomatic  or  em- 
phatic force.     The  sentence: 

There's  many  a  slip  'twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip, 

could  as  well  be  written  without  the  first  word,  there: 

'Twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip  is  many  a  slip. 

Words  generally  used  as  adverbs  or  as  pronouns  may  be 
used  as  there  was  used  in  the  first  sentence.  In  this  use 
they  are  called  expletives.  In  the  following  sentences  the 
italicized  words  are  not  essential: 

There  is  a  tide  in  the  affairs  of  men 

Which  taken  at  the  flood  leads  on  to  fortune. 

It  fortifies  my  soul  to  know 
That  though  I  perish  truth  is  so. 

Practice 

Recast  the  following  sentences,  leaving  out  the  exple- 
tive, or  non-essential,  words: 

1.  It  is  good  to  be  here. 

2.  It  pays  to  advertise. 

3.  There  is  no  use  crying  over  spilled  milk. 

4.  It  isn't  fair  to  pay  men  higher  wages  than  we  pay  to  women. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

5.  There  is  no  telling  how  the  next  election  may  turn  out. 

6.  It  doesn't  matter  whether  you  come  early  or  late. 

7.  The  fear  of  the  Lord,  that  is  wisdom. 

8.  To  be  honest,  to  be  kind,  to  earn  a  little  and  to  spend  a  little 
less,  to  make,  upon  the  whole,  a  family  happier  for  his  presence, 
to  keep  a  few  friends,  and  these  without  capitulation,  above  all, 
on  the  same  grim  condition,  to  keep  friends  with  himself — here  is 
a  task  for  all  that  a  man  has  of  fortitude  and  delicacy. 

9.  The  vacation  was-passed  very  happily,  what  with  sports  dur- 
ing the  days,  dances  and  supper-parties  during  the  evenings. 

Expletives,  then,  are  mere  dummy  words,  grammatical 
oddities,  and  not  properly  parts-of-speech  at  all.  With 
them  set  aside  there  need  be  no  difficulty  in  defining  the 
eight  parts:  we  have  only  to  note  what  use  is  made  of  the 
words  composing  a  given  sentence,  and  we  can  then  deter- 
mine what  are  the  rules  governing  that  use. 

Practice 

I.  Take  the  following  sentences  apart  and  from  their 
uses  classify  the  different  parts  of  speech: 

1.  Oh,  look!  There  goes  Galbraith  Rogers  flj^ing  over  the  Mary- 
land Hotel.  He  is  throwing  something  down  to  the  people  in  front 
of  the  hotel.  Let's  run  and  see  what  it  is.  Oh!  he  is  coming  nearer. 
See!  he  is  dropping  roses.    Hurry!  or  he'll  land  before  we  get  there. 

2.  Pasadena  beat  San  Diego  10  to  7  at  football  Saturday.  Coach 
Seay  said  that  both  sides  played  a  first-class  game. 

3.  The  High  School  float  won  the  first  prize  in  the  Tournament 
of  Roses  this  year.    It  illustrated  "Midsummer  Night's  Dream." 

4.  Oh!  it  was  the  most  beautiful  thing  I  ever  saw.  Mr.  Ely  said 
that  he  used  five  thousand  carnations  and  two  thousand  roses  in 
the  design. 

XL  Make  sentences  using  the  following  words,  then 
classify  the  words  according  to  the  way  in  which  you  have 
used  them: 

1 .  Man  —  the — boat — race — and — boy — lost — over — hat — two — 
ten — mile — won — but — board . 


8  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

2.  When — make — Fred — and — fast — that — Harold —  trip  —  told 
— about — us — did — you. 

3.  Threes  and  up — twos — in — the — flapped — drowsed — their — 
up — crows — pool — knees — to — by — cattle — knees — over. 

4.  Thumping — street — heard — a — in — I — and — the — knew — I  — 
it  —  stumping  —  was — old — wooden — was — wore — he — leg — our  — 
neighbor — the — of — corporal — the — on. 

5.  Clang — with — drawbridge — charger — a — dropped — arch — the 
— surly — through — sprang — dark — and . 

III.  Make  sentences  using  as  two  different  parts  of  speech 
each  of  the  following  words: 

Part  —  deep  —  mind  —  board — desert — peal — object — number — 
pound — command — plain — wound — press — ring — race — fast — man. 


INTRODUCTION 


Outline  Summary 


1.  Kinds 


2.  Fonns 


Part-of-speech 
(noun,  pronoun,  etc.) 


3.  Uses 


L 
2. 
3. 

I  4. 

1. 


4. 


fa- 
b- 
c- 


Into  your  note  book  copy  this  outline  and,  as  you  learn 
the  different  facts  belonging  to  the  outline,  fill  it  out. 
Make  a  similar  outline  for  each  part-of-speech. 


CHAPTER  I 

Nouns 

The  first  thing  you  need  to  know  about  a  noun  is  what 
kind  of  noun  it  is,  for  there  is  more  than  one  kind;  the  next 
thing  will  be  to  learn  its  many  forais  and  uses. 

Kinds  of  Nouns 

If  you  look  at  the  italicized  words  in  the  stanza  following 
you  will  see  that  while  they  are  all  names  of  things,  they 
differ  in  the  kinds  of  things  they  name. 

Now  Rann,  the  Kite,  brings  home  the  night 

That  Mang,  the  Bat,  sets  free — 
The  herd  is  shut  in  hyre  and  hut, 

For  loosed  till  dawn  are  we. 
This  is  the  hour  of  pride  and  power. 

Talon  and  tusk  and  daw. 
Oh,  hear  the  call! — Good  hunting  all 

That  keep  the  Jungle  Law! 

Four  of  these  words,  Rann,  Kite,  Mang,  Bat,  are  individual 
names,  and  are  distinguished  from  the  others  by  beginning 
with  capital  letters;  they  belong  to  the  class  that  is  called 
proper  nouns. 

A  name-word  distinguishing  an  object  from  the  rest 
of  its  class  is  called  a  proper  noun. 

The  word  herd,  in  the  third  line,  differs  from  the  others 
in  that  it  is  the  name  of  a  number  of  objects  that  taken 
together  are  thought  of  as  one. 

10 


NOUNS  11 

A  name-word  denotmg  a  number  of  objects  that  to- 
gether  are  taken  as  one,  is  called  a  collective  noun. 

The  words  pride  and  power,  in  the  fifth  Hne,  differ  from 
all  the  others  in  that  they  do  not  name  objects  at  all;  they 
name  qualities.  The  word  hunting,  in  the  seventh  line, 
names  an  action. 

A  name-word  denoting  a  quality,  action  or  condition, 
is  called  an  abstract  noun. 

The  other  words,  home,  night,  byre,  hut,  dawn,  hour,  talon, 
claw,  tusk,  call,  law,  are  names  conmion  to  the  class  to  which 
they  belong  and  are  called  common  nouns. 

A  name-word  common  to  a  class  of  objects  is  called  a 
common  noun. 

Practice 

I.  Which  nouns  in  the  following  sentences  are  proper, 
which  common,  which  collective,  which  abstract? 

1.  The  Board  of  Education  called  a  meeting  of  the  citizens  of 
Chicago  to  discuss  the  wisdom  of  extending  the  playgrounds. 

2.  The  class  voted  to  accept  the  invitation  of  the  Chamber  of 
Commerce  to  visit  the  exhibit,  and  authorized  the  Secretary  to 
write  a  letter  expressing  the  thanks  of  the  class. 

3.  The  boys  called  a  meeting  of  the  Athletic  Club,  to  decide  as 
to  waj's  and  means  for  raising  money  for  the  new  boat  house. 

4.  We  met  a  drove  of  sheep  and  a  herd  of  cattle  as  we  were  com- 
ing through  the  canyon;  they  were  being  driven  into  Los  Angeles 
to  be  sold. 

5.  The  aviator  said  that  he  chased  a  flock  of  birds  far  up  in  the 
air,  and  that  the  birds  spread  their  wings  in  surprise  and  fright 
when  they  saw  the  strange,  new  bird  flying  after  them. 

II.  Write  five  sentences  each  containing  at  least  one 
proper,  two  common,  one  collective,  one  abstract  noun. 


12  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

III.  In  the  following  selections  classify  each  of  the  nouns 
by  its  kind: 

1.  An  excellent  thing  to  remember,  too,  in  this  connection,  is 
that  England  is  a  flower  garden.  In  ordinary  times,  after  an  Eng- 
lishman is  provided  with  a  roof  and  four  meals  a  day,  the  next 
thing  he  must  have  is  a  garden,  even  if  it  is  but  a  flowerpot.  They 
are  continually  talking  about  loveliness  over  there:  it  is  a  lovely 
day;  it  is  lovely  on  the  river  now;  it  is  a  lovely  spot.  And  so  there 
are  primroses  in  their  speech.  And  then  they  have  inherited  over 
there,  or  borrowed  or  stolen,  a  beautiful  literary  language,  worn 
soft  in  colour,  like  their  black-streaked  grey-stone  buildings,  by 
time;  and,  as  Whistler's  Greeks  did  their  drinking  vessels,  they  use 
it  because,  perforce,  they  have  no  other.  The  humblest  Londoner 
will  innocently  shame  you  by  talking  perpetually  like  a  story-book. 

2.  Washington,  May  31. — American  flyers  today  completed  their 
journey  from  New  York  to  England  by  air. 

The  great  feat,  accomplished  by  the  NC-4,  which  arrived  at 
Plymouth  this  morning,  marked  the  chmax  of  the  navy's  systematic 
experiment  to  determine  the  obstacles  of  trans-Atlantic  flying. 

3.  The  other  day  I  went  to  my  garden  to  get  a  mess  of  peas.  I 
had  seen  the  day  before  that  they  were  just  ready  to  pick.  How 
I  had  lined  the  ground,  planted,  hoed,  bushed  them!  The  bushes 
were  very  fine, — seven  feet  high,  and  of  good  wood.  How  I  had 
delighted  in  the  growing,  the  blowing,  the  podding!  What  a  touch- 
ing thought  it  was  that  they  had  all  podded  for  me!  When  I  went 
to  pick  them  I  found  the  pods  all  split  open,  and  the  peas  gone. 
The  dear  little  birds,  who  are  so  fond  of  the  strawberries,  had  eaten 
them  all.  Perhaps  there  were  left  as  many  as  I  had  planted;  I  did 
not  count  them.  I  made  a  rapid  estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  seed,  the 
interest  of  the  ground,  the  price  of  labor,  the  value  of  the  bushes, 
the  anxiety  of  weeks  of  watchfulness.  I  looked  about  me  on  the 
face  of  Nature.  The  wind  blew  from  the  south  so  soft  and  treacher- 
ous! All  nature  seemed  fair.  But  who  was  to  give  me  back  my 
peas?    The  fowls  of  the  air  have  peas;  but  what  has  man! 

Gender 

The  distinction  of  gender  governs  all  nouns.  The  name- 
word,  Father,  Mother,  John,  Mary,  rooster,  hen,  etc.,  generally 


NOUNS  13 

denotes  the  sex.  But  some  words,  parent,  friend,  chicken, 
etc.,  may  denote  either  sex,  and  other  words,  wood,  stone, 
water,  etc.,  name  objects  without  sex. 

Nouns  which  denote  males  are  masculine  in  gender. 

Nouns  which  denote  females  are  feminine  in  gender. 

Nouns  which  denote  either  male  or  female  are  common 

in  gender. 

Nouns  which  denote  objects  without  sex  are  neuter  in 

gender. 

Note: — Inanimate  objects  when  personified  are  said  to 
be  masculine  in  gender  if  they  possess  strength  or  power; 
if  they  possess  grace,  beauty,  delicacy,  they  are  said  to  be 
feminine. 

In  nearly  all  cases  it  is  in  better  usage  to  make  no  dis- 
tinction in  such  titles  of  men  and  women  as  doctor,  poet, 
author,  chairman.  When  the  sex  is  not  known  and  there 
is  no  need  to  denote  it,  the  custom  in  using  pronouns  is  to 
give  the  preference  to  the  masculine: 

Every  one  should  do  the  best  he  can. 

If  anyone  in  the  room  cannot  see  the  board  he  will  please  take  a 
front  seat. 

If  the  distinction  of  male  and  female  is  to  be  kept,  how- 
ever, the  pronoun  should  indicate  it  clearly: 

If  any  boy  or  girl  in  the  class  did  not  understand  the  problem  I 
shall  be  glad  to  explain  it  to  him  or  her  at  the  close  of  the  recitation. 

In  English  there  are  three  ways  of  denoting  gender: 
By  changing  the  endings  or  suffixes: 

god,  goddess;  priest,  priestess;  shepherd,  shepherdess;  hero,  heroine, 

By  changing  the  word: 

man,  woman;  boy,  girl;  gander,  goose. 


14  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

By  combining  words: 

billy-goat,  nanny-goat;  peacock,  peahen;  man-servant,  maid-servant. 

Practice 

I.  Give  the  class  and  gender  of  each  noun  in  the  fol- 
lowing  sentences: 

The  great,  old  mountain  seems  to  act  as  a  protector  over  the 
lovely  valley.  Men  and  women  and  young  children  are  at  work  in 
the  vineyards  among  the  grape  vines  which  cover  acres  and  acres 
of  the  valley.  The  noon-day  sun  pours  heat  down  upon  them  and 
makes  them  long  for  the  rest  which  evening  brings. 

II.  Fill  in  the  blanks: 

1.  If  I  am  to  judge  by  the  verses  she  read  me,  I  certainly  con- 
sider her  a  true . 

2.  I  know  that  she  is  a  skillful since  she  cured  my  child  of 

pneumonia. 

III.  Write  the  feminine  nouns  corresponding  to  the 
following   words: 

Bachelor,  monk,  buck,  Emperor,  Sultan,  Duke,  Baron,  Earl, 
Czar,  tiger,  stag,  hart,  wizard,  drake,  host,  landlord.  Marquis, 
Abbot. 

Number 

Suppose  you  had  bought  a  ranch  and  were  to  make  a 
list  of  the  things  you  need  for  furnishing  it.  These  are 
some  you  might  choose:  an  automobile,  a  horse,  a  saddle, 
a  bridle,  a  lasso,  a  pony,  a  plow,  a  spade,  a  rake,  a  cow, 
a  sheep,  a  turkey,  a  goose,  an  ox;  and  a  man-servant  and 
his  wife  to  do  the  work.  But  suppose  you  were  to  find 
you  needed  more  than  one  of  each.  You  would  then  have 
to  make  changes  in  spelling  the  names  in  your  list. 


NOUNS  15 

The  form  of  the  noun  which  shows  whether  one  or  more 
than  one  object  is  meant,  is  called  number, 

A  noun  which  denotes  one  object  is  in  the  singular 

number, 

A  noun  which  denotes  more  than  one  object  is  in  the 

plural  number. 

There  are  many  ways  in  which  nouns  change  their  forms 
to  become  plural: 

1.  Most  singular  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  adding  "s": 

Singular  Plural 

aviator  aviators 

bicycle  bicycles 

dirigible  dirigibles 

dreadnaught  dreadnaughts 

aeroplane  aeroplanes 

biplane  biplanes 

automobile  automobiles 

horse  horses 

boat  boats 

motor  motors 

2.  Singular  nouns  ending  in  a  letter  or  sound  which  will 
not  unite  with  ''s"  add  ''es"  to  form  the  plural: 

Singular  Plural 

match  matches 

box  boxes 

lunch  lunches 

latch  latches 

watch  watches 

class  classes 

3  (a).  Singular  nouns  ending  in  *'y,"  preceded  by  a  vowel 
regularly  form  the  plural  by  adding  '*s";  (6)  those  ending 
in  ''y"  preceded  by  a  consonant  change  the  "y"  to  "i" 
and   add   "es": 


16 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


(a)  Singular 

Plural 

(6)  Singular 

Plural 

turkey 

turkeys 

navy 

navies 

play 

plays 

army 

armies 

key 

keys 

pony 

ponies 

donkey 

donkeys 

pansy 

pansies 

4.  Singular  nouns  ending 

in 

Uf„     ^j.     . 

'fe"  generally  form 

their  plurals  by  changing 

the 

>   ''f"  or 

''fe'^  to  ''v/'  and 

adding    *'es": 

Singular    Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

Singular    Plural 

leaf               leaves 

calf 

calves 

knife 

knives 

elf                elves 

beef 

beeves 

shelf 

shelves 

life               lives 

thief 

thieves 

loaf 

loaves 

staff             staves 

wife 

wives 

wolf 

wolves 

wharf           wharves 

self 
half 

selves 
halves 

sheaf 

sheaves 

5.  Singular  nouns  ending  in 
adding  (a)  ''s"  or  (6) 


o"  form  their  plurals  by 


es 


(a)  Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

chromo 

chromos 

proviso 

provisos 

lasso 

lassos 

portfolio 

portfolios 

solo 

solos 

quarto 

quartos 

dynamo 

dynamos 

contralto 

contraltos 

piano 

pianos 

(b)  Singular 

Plural 

Singular 

Plural 

buffalo 

buffaloes 

mosquito 

mosquitoes 

cargo 

cargoes 

hero 

heroes 

tomato 

tomatoes 

potato 

potatoes 

Singular 

Plural 

calico 

caJicDcs 

motto 

mottoes 

negro 

negroes 

6.  A  few  nouns  following  the  Old  English  custom  still 
form  their  plurals  by  adding  ''en"  to  the  singular: 


NOUNS  17 


Singular 

Plural 

ox 

oxen 

child 

children 

brother 

brethren 

7.  Some  nouns  form  their  plurals  by  changing  one  or 
more  vowels  in  the  middle  of  the  singular  form: 

Singular  Plural 

tooth  teeth 

man  men 

goose  geese 

8.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  the  plural  as  in 
the  singular: 

Singular  and  Plural 

trout,  deer,  cannon,  grouse, -heathen. 

9.  Some  nouns  have  plural  forms  when  they  are  singular 
in  number: 

aini§,  news,  pohtics.  maihfiinatics,  physics,  etc. 

10.  Some    nouns    taken    from    foreign    languages    retain 
the  plural  forms  of  their  languages: 

Singular  Plural 


axjs 
analysis 

axes 
analyses 

oasig 

thesis 

elhpsis 

radius 

datum 

oases 
theses 
ellipses 
radii  1 
data  J 

(Greek 
(Latin 

beau 

beaux — (. 

^'rench) 

11.  Some  nouns  may  be  used  in  the  plural  only: 

measles    mumps      scales         scissors    shears  stocks 

tongs        trousers    tweezers    bellows    spectacles 


18  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

12.  Letters,   figures,    signs,    etc.,    form   their   plurals   by 
adding  an  apostrophe  and  ''s"  ('s)  to  the  singular:  as — 

A's,  6's,  etc. 

13.  Compound  nouns  form  their  plurals  in  three  different 
ways: 

(a)  by  changing  the  final  syllable: 

Singular  Plural 

spoonful  spoonfuls 

dooryard  dooryards 

wagonload  wagonloads 

(6)  by  changing  the  most  important  word  in  the  compound : 

Singular  Plural 

son-in-law  sons-in-law 

man-of-war  men-of-war 

attorney-at-law  attorneys-at-law 

daughter-in-law  daughters-in-law 

(c)  by  changing  both  words  of  the  compound: 

Singular  Plural 

man-servant  men-servants 

woman-servant  women-servants 

14.  Proper  nouns  generally  form   their  plurals  by  add- 
ing ''s"  to  the  singular: 

Singular  Plural 

John  Johns 

New  York  New  Yorks 

When  a  title  precedes  the  proper  name  either  the  title 
or  the  proper  name  may  be  pluralized: 

The  Misses  Smith;  or 
The  Miss  Smiths. 

15.  Some  nouns  have  two  plurals  differing  in  meaning: 

Singular  Plural 

brother  (meaning  a  member  of  a  family)  brothers 

brother  (meaning  a  member  of  a  society)  brethren 


NOUNS  19 


Practice 


I.  Make  a  list  to  be  sent  from  the  War  Department 
ordering  not  fewer  than  thirty  articles  for  supplies  to  equip 
and  provision  a  company  of  soldiers.  Denote  the  nouns 
you  use  in  the  singular  and  those  you  use  in  the  plural, 
and  give  rules  for  forming  the  plurals. 

II.  Make  a  list  of  not  fewer  than  thirty  articles  to  be 
sent  from  the  Navy  Department  as  supplies  to  equip  and 
provision  two  destroyers.  Give  rules  for  plural  forms  of 
nouns  used  in  the  list. 

III.  Make  a  list  of  not  fewer  than  twenty  articles  for 
fitting  out  a  large  cattle  ranch.  Give  rules  for  forming 
plurals  of  nouns  used. 

IV.  Make  a  list  of  not  fewer  than  twenty  nouns  denot- 
ing articles  needed  for  a  camping  trip.  Give  rules  for 
forming  plurals  of  nouns  used. 

V.  Make  a  list  of  forty  articles  needed  in  furnishing  a 
house.     Give  rules  for  plurals  of  nouns  sued. 

VI.  Use  in  sentences  and  give  the  rules  governing  the 
singular  and  the  plural  forms: 


news 

radii 

stratum 

scissors 

mathematics 

sheep 

man-of-war 

parenthesis 

data 

flock 

mother-in-law 

cherub 

trout 

tableaux 

volcano 

phenomenon 

VII.  Give  a  recipe  for  making  cake  and  give  rules  for 
forming  plurals  of  all  nouns  used. 

VIII.  Tell  how  to  make  a  kite  and  give  rules  for  plurals 
of  nouns  used. 

IX.  Tell   how   to   make   a   wireless   telegraph   and   give 
rules  for  plurals  of  nouns  used. 

X.  Tell  the  difference  between  an  aeroplane  and  a  dirig- 
ible and  give  rules  for  plurals  of  nouns  used. 


20  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

XI.  Make  out  a  shopping  list  for  your  spring  clothes,  to 
cost  not  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  nor  less  than 
seventy-five.     Give  rules  for  plurals  of  nouns  used. 

XII.  Write  the  plural  of: 


lio           chimney 

cannon 

poet-laureate 

disc 

Hindoo 

alumna 

ito          baby 

German 

hypothesis 

)o            knight-errant 

Englishman 

oasis 

XIII.  Choose  the  correct  form,  and  give  the  reason: 

1.  She  put  two  cupfuls  (cupsfuU)  of  sugar  in  the  cake. 

2.  He  played  two  games  of  dice  (dies)  with  the  man. 

3.  Tidings  was  (were)  brought  to  us  of  the  near  approach  of  the 
party. 

4.  Athletics  are  (is)  very  popular  in  this  school. 

5.  Politics  is  (are)  his  principal  subject  of  conversation. 

XIV.  Give  the  number  and  gender  of  all  nouns  in  the 
following : 

Rustily  creak  the  crickets:  Jack  Frost  came  down  last  night, 
He  sHd  to  the  earth  on  a  starbeam,  keen  and  sparkUng  and  bright; 
He  sought  in  the  grass  for  the  crickets  with  delicate  icy  spear, 
So  sharp  and  fine  and  fatal,  and  he  stabbed  them  far  and  near. 
Only  a  few  stout  fellows,  thawed  by  the  morning  sun. 
Chirrup  a  mournful  echo  of  by-gone  froHc  and  fun. 
But  yesterday  such  a  rippling  chorus  ran  all  over  the  land. 
Over  the  hills  and  the  valleys,  down  to  the  gray  sea-sand. 
Millions  of  merry  harlequins,  skipping  and  dancing  in  glee. 
Cricket  and  locust  and  grasshopper,  happy  as  happy  could  be. 
Scooping  rich  caves  in  ripe  apples,  and  feeding  on  honey  and  spice, 
Drunk  with  the  mellow  sunshine,  nor  dreaming  of  spears  of  ice! 
Was  it  not  enough  that  the  crickets  your  weapon  of  power  should 

pierce? 
Pray  what  have  you  done  to  the  flowers?    Jack  Frost,  you  are  cruel 

and  fierce. 
With  never  a  sign  or  a  whisper,  you  kissed  them,  and,  lo!  they  exhale 
Their  beautiful  lives;  they  are  drooping,  their  sweet  color  ebbs, 

they  are  pale. 


NOUNS  21 

They  fade  and  they  die!    See  the  pansies,  yet  striving  so  hard  to 

unfold 
Their  garments  of  velvety  splendor,  all  Tyrian  purple  and  gold. 
But  how  weary  they  look,  and  how  withered,  like  handsome  court 

dames,  who  all  night 
Have  danced  at  the  ball  till  sunrise  struck  chill  to  their  hearts  with 

its  light. 
Where  hides  the  wood-aster?    She  vanished  as  snow-wreaths  dis- 
solve in  the  sun 
The  moment  you  touched  her.    Look  yonder,  where  sober  and  gray 

as  a  nun 
The  maple-tree  stands  that  at  sunset  was  blushing  as  red  as  the 

sky; 
At  its  foot,  glowing  scarlet  as  fire,  its  robes  of  magnificence  lie, 
Despoiler!  stripping  the  world  as  you  strip  the  shivering  tree 
Of  color  and  sound  and  perfume,  scaring  the  bird  and  the  bee, 
Turning  beauty  to  ashes — 0  to  join  the  swift  swallows  and  fly 
Far  away  out  of  sight  of  your  mischief!    I  give  you  no  welcome, 

not  I! 

XV.  Bring  in: 

1.  Five  sentences  containing  masculine  nouns  whose  gender  is 
expressed  by  combined  words,  as  billy-goat; 

2.  Five  sentences  containing  feminine  nouns  denoting  gender  by 
change  in  suffixes,  as  priestess; 

3.  Five  sentences  containing  the  masculine  gender  of  goose,  pea- 
fowl, bride,  mistress,  ewe; 

4.  A  paragraph  of  not  less  than  fifty  words  containing  fifteen 
nouns  that  name  inanimate  objects  personified,  with  the  proper 
gender  indicated. 

Case 

Besides  their  distinctions  in  gender  and  number  nouns 
have  another  distinction  called  case.  Note  the  different 
ways  in  which  the  noun  girl  is  used  in  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.  The  girl  sang. 

2.  Mary  is  the  girl. 


22  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

3.  I  saw  the  girVs  flowers. 

4.  I  heard  the  girl. 

5.  They  made  the  girl  queen  of  the  May. 

6.  Little  girl,  you  made  a  very  dainty  queen. 

7.  They  wanted  the  queen  to  be  a  young  girl. 

8.  They  gave  the  girl  some  flowers. 

9.  The  flowers  were  for  the  girl. 

10.  Mary,  the  girl  who  was  made  queen,  was  charming. 

11.  They  asked  the  girl  to  sing. 

In  the  first  sentence  girl  names  the  subject  about  which 
the  verb  makes  its  assertion. 

In  the  second  sentence  girl  completes  the  meaning  of 
the  verb  and  refers  to  the  subject. 

In  the  third  sentence  girl  names  the  person  to  whom  the 
flowers  belong. 

In  the  fourth  sentence  girl  names  the  object  which  re- 
ceives the  action  asserted  by  the  verb. 

In  the  fifth  sentence  girl  helps  complete  the  meaning  of 
the  verb  and  at  the  same  time  modifies  the  direct  object 
queen. 

In  the  sixth  sentence  girl  is  used  independently. 

In  the  seventh  sentence  girl  completes  the  meaning  of 
the  infinitive  to  he. 

In  the  eighth  sentence  girl  indirectly  completes  the 
meaning  of  the  verb  by  naming  the  receiver  of  the 
flowers. 

In  the  ninth  sentence  girl  names  the  object  of  the  prep- 
osition for.  -, 

In  the  tenth  sentence  girl  explains  and  is  in  apposition 
with  the  subject  of  the  sentence. 

In  the  eleventh  sentence  girl  is  the  direct  object  of  the 
verb  asked  and  subject  of  the  infinitive  to  sing. 

The  distinction  which  shows  what  part  a  noun  plays 
in  a  sentence  is  called  its  case. 


NOUNS  23 

There  are  three  cases:  the  nominative;  the  objective; 
and  the  possessive. 

The  Nominative  Case 

1.  The  subject  of  the  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case: 
John  ran. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  independent  by  address  is  in  the 
nominative    case : 

John,  come  here;  oh  John! 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun  that  completes  the  verb  and  at 
the  same  time  is  identical  with  the  subject  is  in  the  same 
case  as  the  subject;  it  is  called  a  predicate  nominative. 

Mr.  Wilson  became  President. 

4.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  principal  part  of  an 
absolute  phrase  (a  phrase  used  independently)  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 

The  dog  following  me,  I  went  out  into  the  night. 

5.  A  noun  or  pronoun  in  apposition  with  another  noun 
in  the  nominative  is  also  in  the  nominative  case. 

Garfield,  President  of  the  United  States,  was  a  poor  boy. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  placed  beside  another  noun  or 
pronoun  to  identify  or  emphasize,  but  not  strictly  to 
modify  it,  is  said  to  be  in  apposition. 

And  I,  John,  (nominatives)  saw  these  things. 
We,  the  people,  (nominatives)  of  the  United  States  in  order  to 
form  a  more  perfect  union,  etc. 

Note: — Sometimes  the  appositive  words  are  placed  at 
a  distance  from  one  another: 

He  was  not  a  very  close  observer  of  Nature,  Keats  (nominative). 


24  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

The  Objective  Case 

1.  The  object  which  receives  the  action  expressed  by  the 
verb  is  in  the  objective  case: 

He  met  the  King. 

2.  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  objective  case: 
He  spoke  to  the  King. 

3.  A  noun  in  apposition  with  another  noun  in  the  objec- 
tive is  also  in  the  objective  case: 

He  spoke  to  George  V,  King  of  England  (objectives). 

4.  A  noun  which  indirectly  helps  the  direct  object  to 
complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb  and  at  the  same  time 
limits  the  meaning  of  the  direct  object  is  an  objective  com- 
plement and  in  the  objective  case: 

They  chose  John  captain  of  the  football  team. 

5.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  (see  page  61)  is  always 
in  the  objective  case: 

They  asked  him  to  sing. 

The  Possessive  Case 

1.  When  ownership  is  denoted  the  noun  is  put  in  the 
possessive  case: 

Mother  sang  Tennyson's  ''Sweet  and  Low." 

The  possessive  is  the  only  case  for  which  nouns  change 
in  form.  This  change  is  usually  made  by  adding  '*s"  pre- 
ceded by  an  apostrophe  to  the  nominative  singular  or 
plural : 

The  boy's  coat  was  torn. 

The  men's  club  is  just  around  the  corner. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  the  possessive  case  by 
apposition : 

My  sister  Elizabeth'' s  house  is  two  doors  from  my  cousin  Harry's. 


NOUNS  25 

Note:  Only  the  appositive  noun  has  the  possessive  sign: 
My  sister's  house;  my  sister  Elizabeth's  house. 

Sometimes  when  the  singular  noun  ends  in  '*s,"  or  in  a 
hissing  sound,  the  apostrophe  without  an  ''s"  denotes  pos- 
session: 

The  princess'  feather  marked  her  passage  through  the  crowd. 

So  too  when  the  plural  ends  in  an  "s": 

The  boys'  coats  and  hats  hung  in  a  row. 
The  sprinters'  race  was  set  for  two  o'clock. 

Note:  Sometimes  it  sounds  better  to  use  the  preposition 
"of"  with  its  object,  rather  than  the  more  usual  possessive 
form: 

The  sister  of  the  princess  wore  the  feather;  rather  than 
The  princess'  sister. 

But  in  such  instances  be  sure  that  ''  of  "  with  its  object 
really  means  possession: 

Love  of  country  probably  means  Love  to  country; 
But  love  of  God  may  mean  either:  God's  love  to  us,  or  our  love 
to  God. 

Compound  Possessives 

Groups  of  words  used  as  one  noun,  add  an  apostrophe 
and  "s"  to  the  last  word: 

My  sister-in-law's  house  is  just  across  the  way  from  my  second- 
cousin's. 

When  two  or  more  nouns  are  used  to  denote  joint  pos- 
session of  the  same  thing,  the  sign  is  given  to  the  noun 
last  named;  but  if  the  nouns  denote  separate  possession, 
each  must  have  the  apostrophe: 

Brown  and  Hart's  bookstore  is  the  best  in  town. 
Neither  Smith's  nor  Jones'  has  so  good  a  stock. 


26  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Practice 

I.  Write  plural  possessive  forms  of  the  following  nouns 
and  use  in  sentences: 


lady 

Wife  of  Bath 

merchant  man 

maidservant 

hero 

hanger-on 

valley 

wife 

chief 

Kipling  and  Stevenson  (joint  possession) 
Wilbur  Wright  and  Curtis  (separate  possession) 
President  Taft  and  President  Wilson  (joint  possession) 

II.  Write  sentences  about  the  following  nouns,   chang- 
ing to  the  possessive  form: 

1.  The  dictionaries  of  Webster  and  Worcester. 

2.  The  poems  written  by  Kipling  and  Stevenson. 

3.  The  airships  built  by  Wright  and  Curtis. 

4.  The  flight  made  by  President  Roosevelt  in  the  airship  of  Hoxey. 

5.  The  stories  written  by  Dickens  and  Thackeray. 

III.  Tell  the  kind  of  noun,  the  gender,  the  number  and 
the  case.    Give  reasons  for  your  answers: 

1.  Harry,  the  champion  sprinter,  won  the  half-mile  race. 

2.  May  I  use  the  automobile  this  afternoon? 

3.  Harry's  skates  are  on  the  back  porch. 

4.  Lincoln,   the  great  American,  was  as  modest   as   he  was 
great. 

5.  Uncle  Jack  gave  my  brother  a  Shetland  pony. 

6.  Gentleness  and  strength  should  go  hand  in  hand. 

7.  Mary  is  my  cousin. 

8.  John,  the  beloved  disciple,  lived  to  be  very  old. 

9.  Tom,  will  you  wait  for  Jack? 

'    10.  Neither  Harry's  nor  Robert's  mother  knew  of  the  race. 

11.  Louis  XIV's  reign  was  a  turbulent  one. 

12.  The  book  belongs  to  Mary,  the  finest  girl  in  the  school. 

13.  He  obeyed  the  Attorney-General's  orders. 

14.  John  hit  Fred,  the  httle  lame  boy. 


NOUNS  27 

IV.  Give  correct  possessive  fonns: 

1.  We  study  in  our  class  Burke  and  Webster  orations. 

2.  Is  that  Harry    or  John    boat? 

3.  It  is  neither  Harry    nor  John    boat. 

4.  The  book  was  bought  at  Smith    and  Snow    book-store. 

5.  Neither  the  boy    nor  the  girl    story  was  believed. 

6.  The  herd  leader  led  them  astray. 

7.  Men    and  boys    clothing  made  to  order. 

V.  Place  in  each  blank  a  singular  or  a  plural  noun  in  the 
possessive   case: 

1.  I  will  give  you  the book. 

2.  Which  do  you  like  better or stories? 

3.  and book  store  is  on  the  corner  of  Fifth  and  Cedar 

Streets. 

4.  and book  stores  are  on  opposite  corners  of  Broadway. 

5.  or book  will  do. 

6.  It  was  neither nor fault. 

7.  The crew  were  saved. 

VI.  Tell  the  cases  of  the  following  nouns: 

1.  Howard,  do  you  know  the  man  to  whom  the  letter  is  to  be 
given? 

2.  Mary's  work  being  finished,  she  walked  into  the  town  to  see 
the  stores  gay  with  decorations  for  New  Year's  Day. 

3.  The  man  asked  Marj^  to  give  him  something  to  eat  for  supper. 

4.  They  gave  the  beggar  money  and  food. 

5.  They  gave  the  poor  old  beggar,  the  skeleton  of  a  man,  a  dinner 
and  some  clothes. 

6.  Mary,  being  a  fine  speaker,  made  a  stirring  appeal  to  the 
audience. 

7.  We  waited  at  Jones  and  Hunt's  store  an  hour  for  you. 

8.  Stevenson's  and  Kipling's  philosophy  of  work  has  done  much 
to  enhance  the  dignity  of  labor  in  this  generation. 

VII.  Bring  in: 

1.  Five  sentences  containing  nouns  in  the  nominative  case:  two 
the  subjects  of  sentences,  three  in  apposition  with  the  subjects, 


28  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

two  the  principal  parts  of  absolute  phrases,  two  independent  by 
address. 

2.  Five  sentences  containing  nouns  in  the  objective  case,  four 
the  direct  object  of  the  verb,  two  the  objects  of  prepositions,  two 
in  apposition  with  other  nouns  in  the  objective  case,  two  used  in- 
directly to  help  the  direct  object  complete  the  meaning  of  the  verb. 

3.  Five  sentences  containing  nouns  in  the  possessive  case,  two 
showing  joint  ownership,  five  showing  separate  ownership. 

VIII.  Classify  all  the  nouns  in  the  following  extracts 
and  give  gender,  number,  and  case. 

1.  A  few  nights  after  they  passed  Gibraltar  his  dream  returned 
to  him.  She  who  waited  by  the  brushwood-pile  was  no  longer  a 
little  girl,  but  a  woman  with  black  hair  that  grew  into  a  "widow's 
peak,''  combed  back  from  her  forehead.  He  knew  her  for  the  child 
in  black,  the  companion  of  the  last  six  years,  and  as  it  had  been  in 
the  time  of  meetings  on  the  I^ost  Continent,  he  was  filled  with  de- 
light unspeakable. 

2.  Then  who  should  come  to  tuck  him  up  for  the  night  but  the 
mother?  And  she  sat  down  on  the  bed,  and  they  talked  for  a  long 
hour,  as  mother  and  son  should,  if  there  is  to  be  any  future  for  the 
Empire. 

3.  Over  the  edge  of  the  purple  down, 
Where  the  single  lamp  hght  gleams. 
Know  ye  the  road  to  the  Merciful  Town 
That  is  hard  by  the  Sea  of  Dreams. — 
Where  the  poor  may  lay  their  wrongs  away, 
And  the  sick  may  forget  to  weep? 

But  we — pity  us!    Ah,  pity  us! 

We  wakeful!    Ah,  pity  us! — 

We  must  go  back  with  Policeman  Day — 

Back  from  the  City  of  Sleep. 

4.  One  person  I  have  to  make  good,  myself.  But  my  duty  to 
my  neighbor  is  much  more  nearly  expressed  by  saying  that  I  have 
to  make  him  happy — if  I  may. 

5.  As  for  punishment,  failure  carries  its  own.  To  be  nothing, 
to  have  done  nothing,  to  be  at  one  with  no  force  in  the  universe, 

/to  have  helped  no  one,  to  have  loved  no  one,  all  this  is  the  penalty 
/  of  nonentity,  and  it  needs  no  added  horrors. 


NOUNS  29 

6.  That  orbed  maiden  with  white  fire  laden, 

Whom  mortals  call  the  moon, 
Glides  glimmerinjy  o'er  my  fleece-like  floor. 

By  the  midnight  breezes  strewn; 
And  wherever  the  beat  of  her  unseen  feet. 

Which  only  the  angels  hear. 
May  have  broken  the  woof  of  my  tent's  thin  roof. 

The  stars  peep  behind  her  and  peer; 
And  I  laugh  to  see  them  whirl  and  flee, 

Like  a  swarm  of  golden  bees, 
When  I  widen  the  rent  of  my  wind-built  tent. 

Till  the  calm  rivers,  lake,  and  seas. 
Like  strips  of  the  sky,  fallen  through  me  on  high. 

Are  each  paved  with  the  moon  and  these. 

7.  It  was  already  hard  upon  October  before  I  was  ready  to  set 
forth,  and  at  the  high  altitudes  over  which  my  road  lay  there  was 
no  Indian  Summer  to  be  looked  for.  I  was  determined,  if  not  to 
camp  out,  at  least  to  have  the  means  of  camping  out  in  my  posses- 
sion; for  there  is  nothing  more  harassing  to  an  easy  mind  than  the 
necessity  of  reaching  shelter  by  dusk,  and  the  hospitality  of  a  vil- 
lage inn  is  not  always  to  be  reckoned  sure  by  those  who  trudge  on 
foot.  A  tent,  above  all  for  a  solitary,  is  troublesome  to  pitch  and 
troublesome  to  strike  again,  and  even  on  the  march  it  forms  a 
conspicuous  feature  in  your  baggage.  A  sleeping  sack,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  alwa3^s  ready — you  have  only  to  get  into  it;  it  serves  a 
double  purpose — a, bed  by  night,  a  portmanteau  by  day,  and  it 
does  not  advertise  your  intention  of  camping  out  to  every  curious 
passer-by. 

8.  One  of  the  pleasantest  things  in  the  world  is  ''going  a  jour- 
ney"— but  a  few  know  it  now.  It  isn't  every  one  that  can  go  a 
journey.  No  doubt  one  that  owns  an  automobile  cannot  go.  The 
spirit  of  the  age  has  got  him  fast.  Begoggled  and  with  awful 
squawks,  feverish,  exultant,  ignorant,  he  is  condemned  to  hoot 
over  the  earth.  Thus  the  wealthy  know  nothing  of  journeys,  for 
they  must  own  motors.  Vain  people  and  envious  people  and  proud 
people  cannot  go,  because  the  wealthy  do  not.  Silly  people  do  not 
know  enough  to  go.  The  lazy  cannot,  because  of  their  laziness. 
The  busy  hang  themselves  with  business.  The  halt  nor  the  aged, 
alas!  cannot  go.  In  fine,  only  such  as  are  whole  and  wise  and  pure 
in  heart  can  go  a  journey,  and  they  are  the  blessed. 


30  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

9.  ''Lavender,  sweet  lavender, 

Who  will  buy  my  sweet  blooming  lavender? 

Buy  it  once,  you'll  buy  it  twice, 

And  make  your  clothes  sweet  and  nice!" 
She  was  a  wretched-looking  creature,  with  a  great  basket,  and 
it  was  so  she  sang  through  the  street.    By  this  you  know  where  we 
are,  for  this  is  one  of  the  old  cries  in  London  town. 

For  the  sake  of  my  clothes,  and  for  the  noble  pleasure  of  asso- 
ciating for  an  instant  with  the  original  of  a  coloured  print  of  old 
London  types,  I  bought  a  sprig  of  lavender.  ''Thank  you,  sir," 
she  said. 

10.  It  is  this  clear-sighted,  non-combative  humour  which  Amer- 
icans love  and  prize,  and  the  absence  of  which  they  reckon  a  heavy 
loss.  Nor  do  they  always  ask, "a  loss  to  whom?"  Charles  Lamb 
said  it  was  no  misfortune  for  a  man  to  have  a  sulky  temper.  It 
was  his  friends  who  were  unfortunate.  And  so  with  the  man  who 
has  no  sense  of  humour.  He  gets  along  very  well  without  it.  He  is 
not  aware  that  anything  is  lacking.  He  is  not  mourning  his  lot. 
What  loss  there  is,  his  friends  and  neighbors  bear.  A  man  destitute 
of  humour  is  apt  to  be  a  formidable  person,  not  subject  to  sudden 
deviations  from  his  chosen  path,  and  incapable  of  fretting  away  his 
elementary  forces  by  pottering  over  both  sides  of  a  question.  He 
is  often  to  be  respected,  sometimes  to  be  feared  and  always — if 
possible — to  be  avoided.  His  are  the  qualities  which  distance  en- 
ables us  to  recognize  and  value  at  their  worth.  He  fills  his  place 
in  the  scheme  of  creation;  but  it  is  for  us  to  see  that  his  place  is  not 
next  to  ours  at  table,  where  his  unresponsiveness  narrows  the  con- 
versational area,  and  dulls  the  contagious  ardour  of  speech.  He 
may  add  to  the  wisdom  of  the  ages,  but  he  lessens  the  gaiety  of  life. 


NOUNS 


31 


Outline  Summary 


Kinds 


Forms 


Nouns 


1.  Common 

2.  Proper 

3.  Abstract 

4.  Collective 

1.  Person  —  generally  in  the  third  person 


2.  Gender 


(a)  masculine 

(b)  feminine 

(c)  neuter 

(d)  common 


3.  Number    (a)  singular 
(b)  plural 


4.  Case 


(a)  nominative 

(b)  objective 

(c)  possessive 


Uses 


1.  In  nominative  case  (a)  subject  of  verb 

(b)  nominative    by    ad- 

dress 

(c)  in  apposition 

(d)  predicate  nominative 

(e)  absolute  nominative 


2.  In  objective  case 


(a)  direct  object  of  verb 

(b)  object  of  preposition 

(c)  in  apposition 

(d)  indirect  object 

(e)  the  subject  of  an  in- 

finitive 


3.  In  possessive  case    (a)  showing  possession 
(b)  in  apposition 


CHAPTER  II 
Pronouns 

What  are  pronouns?  Pronouns,  we  have  seen  {ante,  p.  5), 
take  the  place  of  nouns;  they  can  do  anything  in  a  sentence 
which  nouns  can  do.  Indeed  it  would  be  hard,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  know  what  to  employ  or  how  to  express  ourselves 
without  using  them.  These,  in  a  few  sentences,  are  all  the 
kinds  of  pronouns : 

What  ...  is   an   interrogative   pro- 

noun. 

We,  they,  them.,  it,  ourselves,.  .  .  are  personal  pronouns. 

Which  ...  is  a  relative  pronoun. 

Anything  .  .  .  is  an  indefinite  pronoun. 

These  ...  is  a  demonstrative  pro- 

noun. 

Try  writing  the  sentences  by  replacing  the  pronouns 
with  nouns;  you  can  hardly  do  it  without  changing  the 
construction  of  every  sentence.  Yet  every  pronoun  has 
been  used  as  subject,  object,  or  complement,  just  like  a 
noun. 

Personal  Pronouns 

We  speak  our  own  names  very  seldom,  sometimes  not 
once  a  day;  but  probably  we  say  /,  or  we,  more  often  than 
any  other  words,  and  we  say  you  or  they,  he,  she,  or  it,  al- 
most as  often;  that  is,  we  use  the  personal  pronouns.  These 
are: 

Singular  Plural 

(1)  I  (1)  We 

(2)  You  (thou)  (2)  You 

(3)  He,  she,  it  (3)  They 


PRONOUNS 


33 


The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker  or  speakers. 

The  second  person  denotes  the  person  or  persons  spoken 
to. 

The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  persons,  thing 
or  things,  spoken  of. 

UnHke  nouns  the  personal  pronouns  change  their  forms 
from  the  first  to  the  second  and  again  to  the  third  person; 
and  the  singular  of  the  third  personal  makes  changes  to 
denote  differences  in  gender: 


First  Personal 


Singular 
Nominative  I 
Possessive    My  (mine) 
Objective     Me 


Plural 
We 

Our  (ours) 
Us 


Second  Personal 

Singular  Plural 

Nominative  You  (thou)  You  (ye) 

Possessive     Your  (yours) ;  Thy  (thine)  Your  (yours) 

Objective      You  (thee)  You  (ye) 


Singular: 
Nominative 
Possessive 
Objective 


Third  Personal 
Masculine  Feminine 


He 
His 
Him 


She 

Her  (hers) 

Her 


Neuter 
It 
Its 
It 


Plural  (all  genders) : 


Nominative 

Possessive 

Objective 


They 

Their  (theirs) 

Them  ^ 


34  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


Compound  Personal  Pronouns 

Compound  personal  pronouns  are  formed  iii  the  nomina- 
tive and  objective  cases  by  adding  self  to  the  singular  and 
selves  to  the  plural  of  personal  pronouns: 

Nominative  and  Objective 

Singular  Myself 

Yourself  (thyself) 
Himself,  herself,  itself 
Plural  Ourselves 

Yourselves 
Themselves 
Note: — Be  careful  never  to  use  the  forms,  hisself,  their- 
self,  theirselves. 

Compound  personal  pronouns  are  used,  with  or  without 
the  simple  personal  pronouns,  for  emphasis: 

I,  myself,  will  go. 
You  told  me,  yourself. 
He  placed  me  next  himself. 

For  showing  emphasis  in  the  possessive,  singular  or 
plural,  own  is  added  to  the  simple  pronoun: 

Is  this  your  own  handiwork?    It  is  my  very  own. 

Relative  Pronouns 
Notice  the  italicized  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences: 

Tom  Bowling,  the  boy  who  won  the  quarter-mile  last  week  also 
won  the  debate  on  Saturday  night.  The  trophies  which  were 
awarded  him  have  been  photographed,  and  the  picture  placed  with 
those  of  the  teams  and  trophies  that  mark  the  school's  successes 
from  year  to  year. 

These  are  called  relative  pronouns. 


PRONOUNS  35 

A  relative  pronoun  relates  a  suhordinatp.  daiifip.  f^g  aj\ 
antecedent  noun  or  pmnrnm  jn  nnnthpr  clause. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  pronoun  who  relates  the  depend- 
ent clause,  who  won  the  quarter-mile  last  week,  to  its  ante- 
cedent, the  noun  hoy,  subject  of  the  independent  clause. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  pronoun  which  relates  the  de- 
pendent clause,  which  were  awarded  him,  to  the  antecedent, 
trophies. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  pronoun  that  relates  the  de- 
pendent clause,  that  mark  the  school's  successes  from  year  to 
year,  to  the  antecedents,  teams  and  trophies. 

These  are  the  distinctions  to  be  made  in  the  use  of  these 
relative  pronouns: 

Who  should  always  refer  to  persons; 
Which  should  always  refer  to  animals  or  things; 
That  may  refer  to  persons,  animals,  or  things. 
Who  is  the  only  one  of  the  relative  pronouns  that  can  be 
inflected  for  number  and  case. 

Singular  Plural 

Nom.  Who  Who 

Poss.    Whose  Whose 

Obj.     Whom  Whom 

Note : — Whose  may  be  used  also  as  the  possessive  of  which. 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns 

Whoever  comes  will  be  welcome. 

This  sentence  equals — Anyone  who  comes  will  be  welcome. 

Whoever  is  subject  of  the  verb  comes;  the  subject  of  the 
verb  mil  he  welcome  is  he  understood.  He  is  antecedent  to 
the  relative  whoever  though  placed  after  it: 

Whoever  broke  the  plate  (he)  was  careless. 

Whoever  planted  that  tree  (he)  did  a  service  to  humanity. 

Whoever  comes  in  at  the  door  (he)  must  lock  it. 


36  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Whatever  and  whichever  are  also  compound  relatives: 

Whatever  happens  do  not  fail  to  return  the  book. 

Take  whichever  fits  best. 

I  shall  give  you  whichever  you  choose. 

I  shall  believe  whatever  you  say. 

Note: — Whatever  means   anything   at   all;   but   whichever 
means  any  of  a  number. 

Whn.^^q-pijpi^  i^)hn,f,-sn-p.vp.r  and  whinh-fip-ever  are  £ther  forms 
of  the  compound  relative  pronoun: 

And  whosoever  will,  let  him  take  the  water  of  life  freely. 
As  when  preceded  by  such  or  same  is  a  relative  pronoun. 

She  lives  in  the  same  town  as  you  do. 

If  I  could  write  such  papers  as  you  do  I  should  like  to  write  com- 
positions. 

Same   is   sometimes   followed    by    the    relative    pronoun 

fhnf  nr  mhirh   in  place  of  aSl 

She  Uves  in  the  same  town  that  (or  which)  you  live  in. 
Practice 

I.  Fill  in  blanks  with  relative  pronouns  and  give  reason 
for  your   choice: 

1.  Has  it  been  proved  that  man  is  the  only  animal thinks? 

2.  Wilbur  Wright invented  the  aeroplane  lives  in  Dayton, 

Ohio. 

3.  The  sailors  and  the  boats are  in  the  harbor  leave  for  the 

islands  tomorrow. 

4.  He  is  the  same,  kind,  thoughtful  man I  left  so  long  ago. 

5.  The  song I  liked  best  is  the  same  given  by  that  soprano 

sang  with  the  sjnnphony  orchestra. 

6.  She  goes  to  the  same  school you  go  to. 

7.  He  deserves  all he  gets. 

8.  I  let  my  horse, knows  the  way  perfectly,  bring  me  home. 

II.  Change   the   relatives  in   the   following   sentences   to 
compound  relative  pronouns: 


PRONOUNS  37 

1.  I  shall  do  what  you  think  best- 

2.  I  shall  invite  whom  you  wish. 

3.  I  shall  choose  which  I  prefer. 

Inti^jirogative  Pronouns 

Who  brought  the  book? 

Which  (book)  do  you  mean? 

What  (book,  dog,  man)  do  you  want? 

When  the  pronouns  who,  which,  what,  are  used  in  asking 
questions  they  are  called  interrogative  pronouns: 

Who  refers  to  persons. 

WJiich  refers  to  animals  or  things. 

What  refers  to  persons,  animals,  or  things. 

Demonstrative  Pronouns 

This  is  my  section,  porter,  and  that  is  my  baggage:  these  are  my 
umbrellas  and  those  are  my  vaUses. 

In  this  sentence,  you  will  notice,  this,  that,  these,  and 
those  are  used  as  pronouns  and  also  to  point  out  or  demon- 
strate the  nouns  to  which  they  refer. 

When  this  and  that  in  the  singular  and  these  and  those 
in  the  plural  are  used  as  pronouns,  and  point  out  the 
nouns  which  they  denote,  they  are  called  demonstrative 
pronouns. 

Notice  that  this  in  the  singular  and  those  in  the  plural 
refer  to  things  near  at  hand,  while  that  in  the  singular  and 
those  in  the  plural  point  out  things  at  greater  distance. 

Indefinite  Pronouns 

You  may  all  leave  the  room. 

You  are  both  to  blame. 

Many  were  invited,  hut  few  came. 

None  of  these  will  do. 

One  of  the  boys  brought  this  book. 


38  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Several  of  the  riders  were  thrown 

I  shall  send  another  tomorrow. 

Some  of  you  bring  the  chairs. 

I  have  not  any  left. 

Either  of  them  will  do. 

I  shall  carry  one  of  the  baskets,  and  you  may  carry  the  other. 

I  did  not  say  anything  to  anybody. 

In  the  sentences  above  the  italicised  words  are  pronouns, 
because  they  are  substituted  for  nouns,  but  they  differ 
from  the  other  pronouns  we  have  studied  in  that  they  refer 
indefinitely  to  their  antecedent  nouns.  Indeed  the  ante- 
cedent is  as  often  implied  as  expressed. 

A  pronoun  which  refers  to  its  antecedent  {expressed 
or  implied)  so  as  to  give  little  idea  of  its  identity  is 
called  an  indefinite  pronoun. 

Note : — Be  careful  that  the  pronoun  shall  always  agree  with 
its  antecedent  in  person,  gender,  and  number. 

Practice 

I.  Select  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences and  tell  to  what  class  each  belongs;  give  the  person, 
the  number,  the  gender,  the  case;  give  reason  for  decision: 

1.  Who  gives  himself  with  his  alms  feeds  three, 
Himself,  his  hungering  neighbor,  and  me. 

2.  His  honor  rooted  in  dishonor  stood. 

3.  Who  else  would  soar  above  the  view  of  men 
And  keep  us  all  in  fearful  servitude. 

4.  'Tis  with  our  judgments  as  with  our  watches:  none 
Go  just  alike  yet  each  believes  his  own. 

5.  One  was  fair,  strong,  arm'd — 
But  to  be  won  by  force. 

6.  A  red-faced  bride  who  knew  herself  so  vile, 
That  evermore  she  longed  to  hide  herself. 

7.  What-so-ever  things  are  pure,  .  .  .  what-so-ever  things 

are  lovely,  think  on  these  things. 


PRONOUNS  39 

8.  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures  upon  earth. 

9.  He  that  hath  hght  within  his  own  clear  breast 
May  sit  in  the  center  and  enjoy  bright  day. 

10.  Alice  did  not  like  shaking  hands  with  either  of  them,  first, 
for  fear  of  hurting  the  other  one's  feelings. 

11.  "I  know  what  you're  thinking  about,"  said  Tweedledum. 
They  were  standing  under  a  tree  each  with  an  arm  around  the 
other's  neck,  and  Alice  knew  which  was  which  in  a  moment,  be- 
cause one  of  them  had  "Dum"  embroidered  on  his  collar,  and  the 
other  "Dee." 

II.  Use  the  following  pronouns  in  sentences  and  tell 
from  its  use  in  the  sentence  to  what  class  each  belongs: 

one       many     who?        what  who-so-ever      he 

each      it  which?      other  that  those 

this       who        which       anybody     then  it 

III.  Write  twenty  sentences  using  in  all: 

Five  relative  pronouns,  referring  to  persons,  three  to  animals  and 
things,  three  referring  to  both  animals  and  persons. 
Three  demonstrative  pronouns. 
Five  indefinite  pronouns. 

Two  compound  personal  pronouns  showing  emphasis, 
Two  compound  relative  pronouns, 
Two  interrogative  pronouns. 

Explain  uses. 

IV.  Bring  in: 

Five  sentences,  each  containing  two  relative  pronouns. 

Five  sentences,  each  containing  one  demonstrative  pronoun. 

Five  sentences,  each  containing  one  compound  personal  pronoun 
showing  emphasis. 

Five  sentences,  each  containing  one  interrogative  pronoun. 

Five  sentences,  each  containing  one  relative  pronoun  referring  to 
animals. 

Correct  Use  of  Pronouns 

1.  Note  that  some  indefinite  pronouns  are  singular  in 
meaning,  and  some  plural,   and  that  as  antecedents  they 


40  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

must  be  followed  by  pronouns  in  the  singular  or  plural 
accordingly : 

Each,  either,  neither,  everyone,  anyone,  no-one,  everybody, 
nobody,  are  followed  l^y  the  singular; 

All,  both,  some  are  followed  by  the  plural; 

None  is  followed  by  either  singular  or  plural: 

Is  everybody  ready  for dinner? 

Are  all  ready  for dinner? 

Let  each  take turn  riding  the  pony. 

Let  all  ride  the  pony  in turn. 

Either  of  the  boys  will  lend  you knife. 

Both  of  the  boys  will  lend  you knives. 

Neither  has  taken boxing  lesson  this  morning. 

Both  have  taken boxing  lesson  this  morning. 

Anyone  knows must  tell  the  truth. 

All  know must  tell  the  truth. 

Everyone  knows must  tell  the  truth. 

2.  Note  the  distinctions  in  meaning  among  either,  any- 
one, neither,  no-one: 

Use  either  and  neither  when  speaking  of  two  persons  or 
things : 

Either  (one  of  the  two)  is  affirmative. 
Neither  (one  of  the  two)  is  negative. 

Use  anyone,  rather  than  either,  when  speaking  affirma- 
tively of  more  than  two. 

Use  no-one,  rather  than  neither,  when  speaking  of  more 
than  two. 

3.  The  only  practical  difficulties  in  the  correct  use  of 
relative  pronouns  are  in  the  use  of  case: 

who  or  whom: 

are  you  going  to  invite  to  the  picnic? 

do  you  think  I  gave  my  subscription  to? 


I  will  tell  you I  think  should  be  captain. 


PRONOUNS  41 

do  you  think  I  am? 

should  be  king  save  him makes  us  free? 

but  Maud  should  I  meet, 

Last  night  when  sunset  burned 
On  the  blossomed  gable-ends 
At  the  end  of  the  village  street? 

4.  The  relative  pronouns  who,  whoever,  are  often  mis- 
used for  whom,  whomever,  because  though  in  the  objective 
case  the  latter  are  placed  at  the  beginnings  of  clauses: 

I  don't  know  who  you  are  ( =  you  are  who) . 

I  don't  remember  whom  I  met  ( =  I  met  whom). 

You  are  not  my  enemy,  whoever  you  are  (  =  you  are  whoever). 
Give  my  regards  to  whomever  you  see  ( =  you  see  whomever) . 

Instead  of  the  general  relative,  whoever,  whomever,  to 
serve  both  as  object  and  as  subject  it  is  better  to  use  the 
two  pronouns,  him  who,  her  who: 

He  is  sure  to  be  false  to  whomever  (whoever)  trusts  him. 
Better:  He  is  sure  to  be  false  to  him  who  (or  her  who)  trusts  him. 

Practice 

Fill  in  blanks  with  correct  form: 
I.  Either,  neither,  anyone,  no  one: 

1.  Only  five  boys  learned  the  lines  and of  them  could  recite 

them  perfectly. 

2.  Has of  the  two  girls  a  riding  habit? 

3.  I  have  worked  twelve  of  the  examples,  but  I  do  not  know 

of  them  is  right. 

4.  Mother  invited  Harry  and  Arthur,  but can  come. 

5. of  the  boys  in  the  class  will  be  glad  to  do  that  for 

you. 

6.  There  are  five  librarians  in  the  library  and of  them 

will  direct  you  to  the  reference  books  you  need. 

7.  of  the  two  answers  is  right;  work  those  two  examples 

again. 


42  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

II.  Whoever  or  whomever: 

1.  left  that  door  open  will  please  close  it. 

2.  Helen,  please  return  that  book  to it  belongs. 

3.  I  will  give  to wins  the  race  a  gold  medal. 

4.  told  you  that  spoke  without  investigating  the  subject. 

5.  Please  tell comes  for  the  dress  that  I  could  not  finish  it 

before. 

6.  Stranger, you  be  your  face  has  a  pleasing  smile. 

7.  The  concert  is  free  to will  come. 

III.  Thou,  thee,  thyself,  ye,  thy: 

1.  Hail  to ,  blithe  spirit; 

Bird never  wert. 

2.  But 0  Hope,  with  eyes  so  fair, 

What  was delightful  measure? 

3.  I  thought my  partner  and  my  guide, 

As  being  past  away. 

4.  One  came,  me  thought,  of  shape  divine, 

And  said,  " mansion  waits ,  Adam;" 

5.  Wife,  dost know  that  all  the  world  seems  queer  except 

and  me;  and  sometimes  I  think  even art  a  Httle  queer? 

6.  .  .  .  and  so cleave 

His  armor  off  him,  these  will  turn  the  blade. 

7.  0  brother-star  why  shine here  so  low? 

ward  is  higher  up;  but  have slain 

The  damsel's  champion? 

IV.  He,  him,  himself: 

1.  Howard  told  me that  you  were  coming. 

2.  I  could  hardly  believe  that  it  was standing  in  the  door. 

3.  I  little  thought  when  I  went  to  the  telephone  that  Harry 


would  come  to  the  telephone,  but  it  was  ,  and  I  knew  his 

voice,  although  I  had  not  heard speak  in  a  year,  and  did  not 

know  that was  in  town. 

4.  All  were  in  the  boat  except  Harry  and . 

5.  It  was  either or  his  brother  who  brought  the  message. 

V.  She,  her,  herself: 

1.  I  would  not  ride  in  that  machine  with  such  a  reckless  driver 


if  I 


were 


PRONOUNS  43 

2.  You  are  older  than and  should  not  allow to  do  such 

reckless  things. 

3.  I  know to  be  hard  to  reason  with,  but should  speak 

to and  make behave . 

VI.  They,   them,   themselves: 

1.  Who  told  you  that  it  was  who  drove  into  town 

when found  there  was  no  one  else  who  could  drive ? 

2.  The  girls  you  speak  of  could  not  be for have  left 

town,  and  then  I  have  heard  say  never  go  anywhere 

by . 

VII.  /,  me,  we,  us,  he,  who,  whom,  it,  they,   yourselves: 

1.  It  was  Mary  and who  brought  the  flowers. 

2.  It  was  John you  spoke  to. 

3.  What  did  you  and do  with while  we  were  away? 

4.  Will  you  go  with  Harold  and ? 

5.  He  said  that  you  and might  play  tennis. 

6.  She  will  give  it  to  either or . 

7.  It  is and  not who  ought  to  ride  home  tonight. 

8.  You  are  more  tired  than . 

9.  They  were  all  there  except and . 


10.  Either  Edith  or  Rob  will  lend  you pencil. 

11.  pencil  is  mine, pencil  is  yours. 

12.  The  class  had room  awarded  to . 

13.  I  shall  give  the  apples  to comes  for  them. 

14.  did  they  elect  for  president? 

15.  books  are ? 

VIII.  I,  me,  myself: 

1.  Arriving  in  Boston  my  brother  and took  a  carriage  and 

drove  out  to  call  on  our  friend. 

2.  The  concert  gave  pleasure  to  mother  and . 

3.  Both  mother  and enjoy  the  concert  very  much. 

4.  The  book  you  gave  to  Helen  and is  just  the  book 

have  been  hoping  someone  would  give  to . 

5.  Between  you  and ,  he  is  not  to  be  trusted. 

6.  I will  give  him  the  letter. 

7.  You  should  know  whether  you  gave  the  letter  to . 

8.  She  is  stronger  than and  I  can  do  that . 


44  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

9.  Who  is  going  to  church  this  morning?    Only ? 

10.  Was  it you  wished  to  see? 

IX.  We,  us,  ourselves: 

1.  Our  cousins  and are  going  for  an  automobile  ride. 

2.  Harry  says  he  will  take  mother  and in  his  new  car. 

3.  They  were  longer  than because  we  came  across  the  field. 

4.  We ought  to  do  our  part  to  make  the  winter  pleasant. 

5.  He  told that were  to  be  invited  to  the  party. 

X.  Give  person,  number,  gender,  ease,  of  each  pronoun, 
and  show  its  relation  to  its  antecedent: 

1.  It  was  my  brother  who  brought  the  word. 

2.  He  spent  some  of  his  time  at  his  uncle's. 

3.  You  should  be  kind  to  one  another. 

4.  This  song  is  one  of  many  that  she  learned  from  him. 

5.  Each  said  that  the  other  was  right. 

6.  I  want  each  of  you  to  bring  me  in  his  or  her  report  tomorrow. 

7.  He  read  the  story  that  you  lent  him. 

8.  Was  it  you  or  she  who  brought  the  book? 

9.  It  is  they  who  do  the  best  work. 

10.  The  house  that  we  passed  belongs  to  me. 

11.  The  man  whom  you  met  is  my  brother. 

12.  She  asked  him  and  me  to  come. 

13.  It  is  a  joy  to  be  in  the  woods  such  weather. 

14.  Of  such  is  the  Kingdom  of  Heaven. 

15.  What  is  the  matter  with  Harry? 


PRONOUNS 


45 


Pronouns 


OuTUNE  Summary 

1.  Personal:  /,  you,  thou,  he,  she,  it,  and  the 

compounds  myself,  thyself,  etc. 

2.  Relative:  who,  that,  which,  what,   and   the 

compounds     whoever,     whosoever, 
etc. 


Kinds  \  3.  Interrogative:  who,  which,  what. 

4.  Demonstrative:  this,  that,  these,  those. 

5.  Indefinite:  each,  either,  all,  both,  many,  none, 
some,  neither,  anyone,  anybody, 
anything,  another,  any,  one,  one 

[  another,  etc. 

1.  Person. 

2.  Gender. 

3.  Number. 

4.  Case. 

1.  To  take  the  place  of  a  noun. 

2.  To  relate  a  dependent  clause  to  its  ante- 
cedent, noun  or  pronoun,  in  an  independent 
clause. 


Forms 


Uses 


CHAPTER  III 
Verbs 

Note  the  italicised  words  in  the  following  letter: 

Dear  Henry, 

I  must-tell  you  of  my  visit  to  my  old  home 
in  the  eastern  states.  I  dreaded  the  return  after 
I  had-heen  absent  so  long.  But  I  thought  if  I  were- 
going  at  all  I  ought-to-go  now,  for  my  uncle's  health 
is-failing,  and  soon  the  time  will-have-come  when 
I  shall-not-have  sl  single  relative  living  in  the 
old  place.  Besides,  I  do-think  some  tribute  of  re- 
spect is-due  one's  family  seat.  Plowever,  visiting  of 
itself  may-be-interesting,  and  yet  the  account  of  it 
make  very  dull  reading.  Nevertheless  you  shall-hear 
all  about  it,  for  I  will-tell  you.  I  shall-be  as  brief  as 
I  can.  I  suppose  I  might-omit  many  details,  but 
how  then  could  I  give  you  a  correct  impression. 
Well  then,  listen,  and  the  tale  shall-be-told. 

Observe  how  many  varieties  of  action,  state,  or  being 
these  words  express;  or,  in  other  words,  in  how  many  and 
various  ways  verbs  are  used. 

If  any  part-of-speech  may  be  called  the  most  important, 
that  part  is  the  verb,  for  its  business  is  to  tell  us,  alone 
or  with  the  aid  of  other  words,  what  is  said  of  the  subject. 
And  as  there  are  many  things  to  be  said  of  any  subject,  even 
in  a  simple  letter,  so  there  are  many  varieties  of  meaning, 
time,  and  manner,  and  therefore,  many  forms  and  parts 
in  any  one  verb.     When  you  have  mastered  the  verb  in  all  its 

46 


VERBS  47 

parts  you  will   have  gone  a  long  way  toward  mastering 
correct  English.    Well  then,  just  what  is  a  verb? 

A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  express  action,  state  or  being. 

I  made  a  boat  (action).  I  die  (action). 

The  boat  was-made  (action).  I  am-dead  (being). 

I  go-to-sleep  (action).  I  awake  (action). 

I  am-asleep  (being).  I  am-wakened  (action). 

I  am-awake  (being). 

Now  to  understand  these  varieties  of  action  and  of  being 
we  must  first  learn  several  distinctions: 

1.  The  distinction  among  three  kinds  of  verbs: 
Verbs-proper,  (or  simple  verbs)   that  by  themselves  or 

with  the  aid  of  other  verbs  make  statements  about  the 
subject: 

The  bird  sings;  the  bird  sang;  the  bird  is-singing;  the  bird  has- 
sung. 

Auxiliary  verbs  (or  auxiliaries),  the  helping  verbs,  so 
called  because  without  their  help  the  right  form  of  state- 
ment cannot  be  made: 

The  bird  may  (might),  can  (could),  must  (ought-to),  shall  (should), 
will  (would),  sing; 
The  bird  may-have  (might-have),  can-have  (could-have) ,  etc.,  sung. 

Verbals,  so  called  because  they  have  the  root-form  and 
the  idea  of  verbs.  Yet  alone  they  cannot  be  used  as  verbs; 
they  must  be  used  as  adjectives  or  as  nouns: 

The  singing  (adj.)  bird  filled  the  room  with  sound. 

The  singing  (noun)  of  the  bird  filled  the  room  with  sound. 

To-sing  (noun)  seemed  to  make  the  bird  glad. 

2.  The  distinction  between  a  transitive  and  an  intransitive 


48  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

verb,  or  between  an  active  verb  that  takes  an  object  and 
one  that  does  not: 

The  hunter  killed  (transitive)  his  game;  but  his  horse  died  (in- 
transitive). 

3.  The  distinction  between  the  active  and  the  passive 
voice,  or  between  that  form  of  the  verb  used  when  the  sub- 
ject denotes  the  doer,  and  that  used  when  it  denotes  the 
receiver  of  an  action: 

You  (subject)  elect  (active  voice)  your  candidate;  and  your 
candidate  (subject)  is  elected  (passive  voice)  by  you. 

4.  The  distinction  among  modes  or  among  the  manners 
in  which  a  verb  can  make  its  statement: 

The  indicative,  the  mode  of  assertion: 

When  the  postman  comes  I  shall-get  a  letter. 

The  subjunctive,  the  mode  of  condition,  of  doubt,  or 
passibility: 

If  it  rain  or  if  it  shine,  postman  always  comes  at  nine, 
Were  the  postman  to  come  I  should-get  a  letter. 

The  imperative,  the  mode  of  command: 
Postman,  bring  me  a  letter. 

5.  The  distinction  among  tenses;  or  those  parts  of  the 
verb  which  show  the  different  times,  pi;s§£nt,  jmgt,  or 
future,  in  which  action  may  take  place.  There  are  six 
tenses:  the  present,  past,  and  future;  the  present-perfect, 
past-perfect,  and  future-perfect. 

6.  The  distinction  among  verb-forms: 

The  simple  verb-form,  or  that  which  simply  indicates 
action  or  being: 

I  move,  I  moved,  I  shall-move. 


VERBS  49 

The  progressive  verb-form,  or  that  which  indicates 
continuing  action  or  being: 

I  am-moving,  I  was-moving,  I  shall-he-moving. 

The  emphatic  verb-form,  or  that  which  strongly  asserts 
action  or  being: 

I  do-move,  I  did-move,  Do-move. 

7.  Finally,  the  distinctions: 

between  the  singular  and  the  plural  numbers  (as  with 
nouns   and    pronouns); 

and  among  the  first,  the  second,  and  the  third  persons 
(as  with  pronouns)  of  either  number. 

We  are  now  ready  to  study  the  verb  in  detail.   • 


Verbs  Proper 

Here  are  four  different  types  of  assertion  about  the  same 
thing — a  boat: 

The  torpedo  sank  the  boat. 
The  boat  was  sunk  by  a  torpedo. 
The  boat  sank. 
The  boat  is  a  destroyer. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  noun  torpedo  names  the  sub- 
ject which  performs  the  act;  the  verb  sank  asserts  the  action; 
the  noun  boat  names  the  object  which  receives  the  action. 

Active  verbs  which  require  an  object  to  receive  their 
action  and  complete  their  meaning  are  called  transitive. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  noun  boat  which  in  the  first 
sentence  was  the  object  has  become  the  subject,  but  instead 
of  performing  the  act  it  receives  the  action  assorted  by 
the  verb  was-sunk;  the  doer,  a  torpedo,  has  become  the 
object  of  the  preposition  by.  * 


50  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Transitive  verbs  which  assert  action  of  their  subjects 
are  in  the  active  voice;  transitive  verbs  from  which  their 
subjects  receive  action  are  in  the  passive  voice. 

In  the  third  sentence  the  noun  boat  names  the  subject 
which  performs  the  act,  and  the  verb  sank  asserts  the 
action;  there  is  no  object. 

Verbs  which  do  not  require  an  object  to  receive  their 
action  in  order  to  complete  their  meaning  are  intransi- 
tive. 

Some  verbs  are  used  either  transitively  or  intransitively: 

The  destroyer  sank  (intransitive). 

The  destroyer  sank  the  submarine  (transitive). 

An  intransitive  active  verb  can  never  be  put  in  the  pas- 
sive voice.  Apparent  exceptions  such  as  he  is-come,  he  is- 
gone,  really  mean  he  has-come,  he  has-gone;  that  is,  the 
regular  passive  auxiliary  be  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
active  voice,  instead  of  have. 

Other  apparent  exceptions  are  intransitive  verbs  used 
with  prepositions.  In  the  passive  use  these  have  the  effect 
of  transitive  verbs: 

Active:  He  slept  in  the  bed. 

Passive:  The  bed  was  slept-in. 

But  in  the  latter  case  the  verb  is  not  really  slept  but 
slept-in,  meaning  occupied,  and  is  transitive  in  effect. 

In  the  fourth  sentence  the  noun  boat  is  the  subject,  but 
no  action  is  performed  and  hence  no  object  is  required; 
the  verb  is  merely  links  the  subject-nominative,  boat,  to 
the  predicate-nominative,   destroyer. 

Intransitive  verbs  which  do  not  assert  action  but  merely 
couple  the  subject  with  the  predicate-nominative  or 
other  complement,  are  called  copulative  verbs,  or  copulas. 


VERBS  51 

I  am  (copula)  the  man  (predicate  noun)  you  are  looking  for. 
Are  (copula)  you  he    (predicate-pronoun)? 
No,  he  is  (copula)  absent  (predicate-adjective). 

The  ordinary  copula  is  be,  but  other  verbs  of  nearly 
equivalent  meaning  are  sometimes  used.  For  instance,  a 
physician  might  greet  his  patient  thus:  ''Good  morning, 
Mr.  Smith.  It  is  I,  the  doctor.  You  seem  brighter  this 
morning.  Your  temperature,  too,  is  lower,  and  your  pulse 
stronger.  Now,  if  you  will  just  stay  quiet  for  a  few  days 
and  keep  warm  you'll  soon  he  well  again.'' 

In  actual  practice  the  only  difficulty  in  using  the  copula 
with  the  predicate-nominative  is  with  pronouns,  because 
the  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  pronouns  differ  in 
form: 

Lo,  it  is  I;  be  not  afraid. 

It  is  He  that  hath  made  us,  and  not  we  ourselves. 

Was  that  Mr.  Smith  whom  (objective  case)  you  bowed  to?  The 
light  was  so  dim  that  I  could  not  see  who  (predicate-nominative) 
it  VX18  (copula). 

Practice 

I.  Tell  how  the  verbs  are  used  and  from  their  use  classify 
them: 

1.  The  boy  rode  the  donkey. 

2.  The  boy  rode. 

3.  The  donkey  was  ridden  by  the  boy. 

4.  The  donkey  is  Pete. 

5.  The  man  wrote  the  letter. 

6.  The  letter  was  written  by  the  man. 

7.  The  man  wrote. 

8.  The  letter  is  an  invitation. 

9.  The  lion  is  a  beast  of  prey. 
10.  The  race  was  run  by  the  boy. 

II.  The  bird  flew. 


52  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

12.  The  girl  made  a  dress. 

13.  The  dress  was  made  by  Ann, 

14.  The  girl  sings  sweetly. 

15.  The  girl  is  Dorothea. 

16.  The  band  plays  in  the  park  on  Sunday  afternoons. 

17.  The  tire  of  Harry's  bicycle  was  punctured  before  he  was 
half-way  home. 

18.  I  called  for  Mary  this  afternoon,  but  she  had  been  invited 
out  to  dinner  and  so  could  not  go  for  a  walk  with  me. 

19.  Did  you  say  that  Mary  had  been  invited  to  go  to  Europe 
with  her  Aunt? 

II.  In  the  following  selections  classify  the  different 
types  of  assertion: 

1.  Speaking  of  those  yellow  squash-bugs,  I  think  I  disheartened 
them  by  covering  the  plants  so  deep  with  soot  and  wood-ashes  that 
they  could  not  find  them;  and  I  am  in  doubt  if  I  shall  ever  see  the 
plants  again.  But  I  have  heard  of  another  defence  against  the  bugs. 
Put  a  fine  wire-screen  over  each  hill,  which  will  keep  out  the  bugs 
and  admit  the  rain.  I  should  say  that  these  screens  would  not 
cost  much  more  than  the  melons  you  would  be  likely  to  get  from  the 
vines  if  you  bought  them;  but  then  think  of  the  moral  satisfaction 
of  watching  the  bugs  hovering  over  the  screen,  seeing,  but  unable 
to  reach  the  tender  plants  within.    That  is  worth  paying  for. 

2.  There  is  no  dignity  in  the  bean.  Corn,  which  in  my  garden 
grows  alongside  the  bean,  and,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  with  no  affecta- 
tion of  superiority,  is,  however,  the  child  of  song.  It  waves  in  all 
hterature.  But  mix  it  with  beans  and  its  high  tone  is  gone.  Succo- 
tash is  vulgar.  It  is  the  bean  in  it.  The  bean  is  a  vulgar  vegetable, 
without  culture,  or  any  flavor  of  high  society  among  vegetables. 

III.  Bring   in: 

1.  Five  sentences  having  verbs  in  the  active  voice; 

2.  Five  sentences  having  verbs  in  the  passive  voice; 

3.  Five  sentences  having  copulative  verbs; 

4.  Five  sentences  having  transitive  verbs; 

5.  Five  sentences  having  verbs  that  may  be  either  transitive  or 
intransitive. 


VERBS 


53 


IV.  Make  sentences  with  the  following  verbs  used  tran- 
sitively,  and   intransitively: 


sing 

run 

jump 

fly 

speak 

study 

waved 

walked 

sew 

sow 

dream 

fought 

won 

sank 

write 

live 

leap 

laugh 

know 

buy 

grow 

see 

play 

ride 

leave 

V.  Use 

in  the  active  and  in  the 

passive  voice: 

made 

sang 

loved 

won 

bought 

invited 

told' 

heard 

built 

dug 

washed 

dressed 

trimmed 

mowed 

plowed 

cooked 

pealed 

raked 

sharpened 

chopped 

milked 

tied 
caught 
sailed 
cut 

learned 
embroidered 

buttoned 

printed 
found 
rowed 
watered 
studied 
closed 

blackened 

VI.  Use 

in  the  passive  voice: 

dig 

ride          write 

;        sing 

buy       make 

give 

hurt 

shoot        take 

catch 

see 

draw 

Auxiliaries 

• 

In  the  following  sentences  many  verbs  are  compound; 
that  is,  they  are  made  up  of  the  simple  verb  with  some 
other  verb,  to  help  make  the  assertion.  Compound  forms 
are  sometimes  called  verb-phrases: 

I  often  have-thotight  how  exciting  it  must-have-heen  to  live  in  the 
days  of  Queen  Elizabeth  when  so  much  wa^  to  he  discovered  and 
almost  any  marvellous  tale  might-he  true:  there  might-he  a  "north- 
west passage"  to  China  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  there  might-he  an 
El  Dorado,  or  Golden  Land,  in  South  America,  or  a  Fountain  of 
Youth  in  Florida.  Nowadays  it  does-require  so  much  credulity  to 
believe  such  things.  Yet  we  ought-to-take  comfort  that  two  mar- 
vellous things  were-achieved  in  our  own  times:  the  North  Pole  was- 


64  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

discovered  and  the  flying  machine  was-invented  in  the  same  year — 
each  by  an  American. 

A  verb  used  to  help  another  verb  assert  action  is  called 
an  auxiliary. 

Some  auxiliaries  denote  voice: 

Be  is  the  regular  auxiliary  of  the  passive  voice. 

Some  auxiliaries  denote  tense: 
Have  is  the  regular  auxiliary  of  the  perfect  tenses; 
Shall  and  will  are  the  regular  auxiliaries  of  the'  future 
tenses. 

Some  auxiliaries  denote  verb-form: 

Be  is  the  regular  auxiliary  of  the  progressive  verb-form; 

Do  is  the  regular  auxiliary  of  the  emphatic  verb-form. 

Some  auxiliaries  are  also  verbs-proper: 

Have,  do,  be,  and  will  are  both  kinds  of  verb: 

DonH  (auxiliary)  be  (auxiliary)  always  worrying  about  what  you 
will  (auxiliary)  have  (verb)  or  what  you  will  (auxiliary)  do  (verb). 
You  may  have  or  do  almost  what  you  will  (verbs).  Think  rather  of 
what  you  want  to  be  (verb). 

r 

The  Potential 

Certain  auxiliaries  are  used  with  the  simple  verb  to 
assert  permission,  possibility,  power,  determination,  desire, 
duty,  or  necessity.  In  this  use  they  are  called  potential 
auxiliaries,  and  the  resulting  verb-phrase  is  called  the 
potential    verb-phrase : 

May  (might)  expresses  permission,  possibility,  or  wish. 

Can  (could)  expresses  power. 

Must  expresses  necessity  or  coercion. 

Ought  expresses  obligation  or  propriety. 

Should  expresses  obligation. 


VERBS  55 

Would  expresses  determination  or  desire. 

The  potential  verb-phrase  may  be  used  in  independent 
or  in  dependent  clauses,  and  either  with  the  Indicative  or 
with  the  Subjunctive  mode. 

Shall  and  Will 

We  are  sometimes  confused  about  the  correct  use  of  shall 
and  mil. 

Broadly  the  distinction  is  this: 

I  (we)  shall  means  I  am  (we  are)  going-to. 

I  (we)  will  means  I        (we)  want-to. 

The  reverse  is  true  for  the  second  and  third  persons: 
You  (he,  she,  they)  will  means    You  (they)  are  (he,  she,  is) 
going-to. 

You  (he,  she,  they)  shall  means    You  (they,  he,  she)  miist. 

More  exactly: 

For  the  first  person  shall  expresses  futurity;  will  expresses 
determination  or  volition. 

For  the  second  and  third  persons  will  expresses  futurity; 
shall  expresses  determination  or  volition. 

Should  and  would  generally  follow  the  rules  for  shall 
and  will: 

Like  the  writer  of  the  hymn,  I  "would  not  live  alway,"  but  I 
should  be  interested  in  coming  alive  again  a  hundred  years  hence. 

Note: — In  indirect  quotations  introduced  by  ''that" 
(expressed  or  understood)  use  the  same  auxiliary  as  in 
direct : 

Harold  says,  "I  shall  play  tennis  tomorrow"  (direct). 
Harold  says  (that)  he  shall  play  tennis  tomorrow  (indirect). 
Harold  said  (that)  he  should  play  tennis  tomorrow  (indirect). 
Jack  says,  "Harold  will  have  to  mow  the  lawn"  (direct). 
Jack  says  (that)  Harold  will  have  to  mow  the  lawn  (indirect). 
Jack  said  (that)  Harold  would  have  to  mow  the  lawn  (indirect). 


56  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

In  asking  questions  use  the  auxiliary  you  expect  in  reply: 

Question:  Shall  you  go  to  the  city  tomorrow;  or  will  you  be 
good  enough  to  wait  until  I  can  go  with  you? 
Answer:  I  will  gladly  wait;  I  shall  not  need  to  go  tomorrow. 

Practice 

In  the  following  sentences  distinguish  between  the  mean- 
ings indicated  by  the  alternative  auxiliaries: 

1.  I  will  (shall)  go  out  in  the  motor  car  this  afternoon. 

2.  I  will  (shall)  be  obeyed. 

3.  Shall  (will)  you  go  to  church  with  me? 

4.  You  shall  (will)  reach  the  top  of  the  mountain  if  you  keep 
climbing. 

5.  You  would  (should)  go  home  in  spite  of  our  protest. 

6.  Shall  (will)  you  accept  her  offer? 

7.  She  said  she  would  (should)  not  do  it. 

8.  If  you  would  (should)  listen  you  might  hear  something  to 
your  credit. 

Modes 

The  manner  in  which  an  assertion  is  made  has  much  to 
do  with  the  response  it  receives.  For  instance,  suppose  a 
boy  were  lazy  about  getting  up  in  the  morning;  various 
members  of  his  family  might  try  various  ways  of  rousing 
him:  ' 

His  sister  might  call  to  him: 

''John,  it's  half-past  seven,  time  for  breakfast;  you 
must  get— «p.'' 

His  brother  or  mothep-might  say: • 

"Fd  be  ashamed  to  be  such  a  sleepy-head,  if  I  were  you"; 
without   rousing   John. 

But  if  his  father  were  to  call: 

"John,  get  up/^  John  would  be  likely  to  spring  from  the 
bed. 

The  manner  in  which  a  verb  makes  its  assertion  is 
called  its  Mode. 


VERBS  57 

1.  The  sister  states  two  facts: 

When  the  verb  assei^ts  a  fact  it  is  said  to  be  in  the 
Indicative  mode. 

2.  The  brother  asserts  an  impossible  condition,  or  a 
condition  contrary  to  fact: 

When  the  verb  asserts  something  doubtful,  condition- 
al, contrary  to  fad,  or  improbable  it  is  said  to  be  in  the 

Subjunctive  mode. 

3.  The  father  gives  a  command. 

When  the  verb  expresses  an  entreaty  or  command  it 
is  said  to  be  in  the  Imperative  mode. 

The  Indicative 

The  Indicative  is  the  mode  in  which  most  facts  are 
communicated  and  most  questions  asked;  any  straight- 
forward declaration  or  any  question  expecting  a  straight- 
forward declaration  in  reply,  will  probably  be  put  in  the 
indicative.    Its  forms  are  easy  to  recognize. 

The  Subjunctive 

The  Subjunctive  has  several  peculiarities: 

1.  It  always  asserts  something  at  best  doubtful,  and 
perhaps  even  improbable  or  impossible! 

I  do  not  know  whether  you  would  like  (subjunctive)  peanut  taffy 
or  plain  molasses  candy  better. 

If  I  were  given  a  million  dollars  I  shoidd  not  know  (subjunctive) 
how  to  spend  it. 

2.  It  is  generally  added  to  another  statement  (subjunctive 
=  subjoining),  usually  the  indicative  or  the  infinitive.  When 
added  to  the  indicative  it  is  usually  preceded  by  some  join- 


58  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

ing  word — if,  whether,  though,  but  sometimes  the  order  of 
words  is  inverted  ;4fistead-: 

You  must  choose  between  these  two  studies  (simple  indicative). 

// 1  miLst  choose  (subjunctive)  I  shall  choose  (indicative)  the  more 
practical; 
or; 

Must  I  choose  (inverted  order)  I  shall  choose  (indicative)  the  more 
practical. 

3.  It  sometimes  follows  a  fashion  of  its  own  for  chang- 
ing its  form  to  denote  number  or  tense,  especially  in  the 
verb,  he,  and  the  future  auxiliaries: 

When  I  am  here  tomorrow  (indicative)  I  shall  give  you 

the  money. 
If  I  he  here  tomorrow  (subjunctive)  I  shall  give  you  the 

money. 
If  (whenever)  it  is  raining  (indicative)  you  carry  an 

umbrella. 
If  it  he-raining  (subjunctive)  be  sure  to  take  the  car. 

If  (whenever)  he  was  through  with  his  dinner  (indica- 
tive) he  was  ready  to  work. 

If  he  were  through  with  his  dinner  (subjunctive)  he 
would-be-ready  to  work. 

Were  he  through  with  his  dinner  he  would-be-ready  to 
work. 


Present 


Past 


Note: — See  also  Tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  (page  68)  for 
correct  use. 

Practice 

I.  Observe   the   signs   of  the   subjunctive  mode   in   the 
following  sentences: 

1.  If  he  be  alive  then  the  money  belongs  to  him. 

2.  If  I  were  as  tired  as  you  seem  to  be  I  should  stop  working. 

3.  If  he  come  not  today  you  may  doubt  my  word. 

4.  If  he  go  he  will  first  tell  you. 

5.  If  he  were  not  going  why  did  he  say  so? 

6.  If  he  were  sure  that  he  were  going  he  would  first  buy  his  ticket. 


VERBS  59 

7.  I  should  be  ashamed  to  act  as  he  does. 

8.  Though  I  speak  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels  and  have 
not  charity,  it  profiteth  me  nothing. 

9.  Though  He  slay  me  yet  will  I  trust  Him. 

II.  Choose  the  correct  form  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  If  he  (was,  were)  to  come  I  should  give  him  the  message. 

2.  I  wish  I  (was,  were)  as  clever  as  he  is. 

3.  Though  he  (be,  is)  sometimes  harsh  he  is  generally  kind. 

4.  If  he  (went,  were-to-go)  on  a  Friday  it  (rained,  would-rain). 

5.  If  it  (rain,  rains)  on  Friday  we  must  not  start. 

III.  Select  from  the  Bible,  Shakespeare,  or  any  standard 
literature: 

1.  Five  sentences  having  verbs  in  the  present  subjunctive. 

2.  Five  sentences  having  verbs  in  the  past  subjunctive. 

IV.  Tell  the  differences  in  meaning  between  the  forms  in 
italics: 

1.  If  he  is  (were)  honest,  he  will  (would)  succeed. 

2.  If  he  was  (hod-been)  honest,  he  (would-have-succeeded)  stcc- 


3.  Though  he  fail  (fails)  the  first  time  yet  he  will  (may)  succeed 
in  the  end. 

4.  Though  he  failed  the  first  time  yet  will  (would)  I  have  faith 
in  him. 

5.  Though  you  told  me  he  failed  (told  me  he  had-f ailed)  yet  will 
(wovM)  I  have  faith  in  him. 

6.  Though  you  told  (were-to-tell)  me  so  ten  times  a  day  I  always 
forgot  (should  forget)  it. 

The  Imperative 
In  the  imperative: 

1.  The  subject  is  thou,  you  or  ye  (generally  not  expressed): 

2.  The  verb  is  in  the  second  person  and  is  always  in  the 
present  tense: 

Please  bring  me  the  book. 
Do  walk  a  little  faster. 


60  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Go  down  three  blocks  till  you  come  to  Sansome  Street,  turn  to 
your  left  and  walk  about  half  a  block;  ring  at  the  lower  door. 

Note: — When  a  command  is  to  be  expressed  for  the  first 
person,  singular  or  plural,  the  form,  let  me  (us)  is  used, 
rarely  such  a  form  as  go  we,  turn  we,  etc.  For  the  third 
person  the  form  is,  let  him  {her,  them). 

The  Verbals 

In  the  following  lines  observe  the  difference  in  uses  of 
the  word,  flying: 

Boys  flying  kites  haul  in  their  white-winged  birds, 
But  you  can't  do  that  when  you  are-flying  words. 

In  the  second  line  the  asserting  word  is  are-flying;  in 
the  first  line  the  asserting  word  is  haul.  Omit  the  words 
''flying  kites"  from  the  first  line  and  you  have  still  remain- 
ing a  complete  statement,  ''boys  haul  in  their  white- winged 
birds";  therefore  "flying"  cannot  be  the  verb.  And  yet 
it  certainly  has  the  form  of  a  verb  and  gives  the  idea  of 
action;  therefore  it  must  be  part  verb.  But  instead  of 
being  used  to  assert  it  is  used  to  modify  a  noun;  therefore  it 
is  also  part  adjective. 

Words  which  are  verbs  in  form  and  idea  hut  have  the 
use  of  some  other  part  of  speech  are  called  verbals. 

Verbals  may  be  active  or  passive  in  voice : 

Active:  Asking   (adjective)  permission  we  gained  the  owner's 
good-will. 
Our  asking  (noun)  permission  gained  the  owner's  good- 
will. 
Passive:  Being-asked  (adjective)  permission  the  owner  admitted 
us  freely. 
Being-asked  (noun)  was  all  that  the  owner  required. 
Active :  To-die,  to-sleep  — 

No  more;  and  by  that  sleep  to-say  we  end 
the  heartache.  ... 


VERBS  61 

Passive :  To-be-imprisoned  in  the  viewless  winds, 

And  blotni  with  restless  violence  round  about 
The  pendent  world. 

Participles 

Observe  again  that  as  the  noun  boys,  in  the  first  quota- 
tion, is  modified  by  the  word  flying,  so  the  noun  birds  is 
modified  by  the  word  white-winged. 

Words  which  are  verbs  in  form  and  idea  but  adjec- 
tives in  use  are  called  participles  or  verbal  adjectives. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  participles: 

1.  The  present  participle,  always  ending  in  ''ing"; 
flying,  running,  etc. 

2.  The  past  participle,  regularly  ending  in  "d,''  ''ed,'' 
"t";  or  irregularly  in  "n,"  ^'ne";  heard,  moved,  hurt,  driven, 
done. 

When  the  action  described  by  the  participle  is  rep- 
resented as  going  on  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb 
of  the  sentence  it  is  called  a  present  participle. 

Seeing  his  automobile  at  the  door,  I  was  sure  it  must  be  the 
doctor. 

When  the  action  described  by  the  participle  is  rep- 
resented as  complete  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb,  it  is  called  the  past  participle. 

Having-met  him  several  times  at  that  corner  I  concluded  that 
he  lived  in  our  street. 

Infinitives 

Wo^ds  which  are  verbs  in  form  and  idea  but  nouns 
in  use  are  called  infinitives,  or  verbal  nouns. 


62  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

There  are  two  kinds  of  infinitives: 

1.  The  infinitive  with  'Ho"  (simple  infinitive). 
Do  you  know  how  to-swimf 

In  some  cases  the  preposition  is  not  expressed: 
Do  you  dare  (to)  swim  so  far? 

2.  The  infinitive  in  "ing." 
Do  you  understand  swimming? 

Note: — When  in  doubt  about  a  verbal:  (1)  omit  the  word 
from  the  sentence  or  clause;  if  what  is  left  contains  the 
asserting  word,  the  omitted  word  is  probably  a  verbal;  (2) 
look  for  its  use  in  the  sentence;  if  it  modifies  some  noun 
you  will  be  safe  to  treat  it  as  a  participle,  if  it  is  used  as  a 
noun  you  will  be  safe  to  treat  it  as  an  infinitive. 

Swimming  (participle)  with  all  my  might  I  reached  the  man  just 
in  time  to  save  him  from  drowning  (infinitive). 

Practice 

I.  Denote  the  participles  and  infinitives  in  the  follow- 
ing and  give  the  voice  and  tense: 

1.  I  heard  the  ripple  washing  in  the  reeds 
And  the  wild  water  lapping  on  the  crag. 

2.  But  hastily  to  quench  their  sparkling  ire, 
A  flood  of  milk  came  rolling  on  the  shore 
That  on  his  curded  wave  swift  Argus  wore, 
And  the  immortal  swan  that  did  her  life  deplore. 

3.  I  found  Him  in  the  shining  of  the  stars, 

I  marked  Him  in  the  flowering  of  His  fields. 

4.  It  is  the  hush  of  night,  and  all  between 

My  margin  and  the  mountains,  dark,  yet  clear, 
Mellowed  and  mingling,  yet  distinctly  seen, 
Save  darkened  Jura,  whose  capt  heights  appear      «- 
Precipitously  steep: 


VERBS  63 

5.  And  there  was  mounting  in  hot  haste:  The  steed, 
The  mustering  squadron,  and  the  clattering  car, 
Went  scouring  forward  with  impetuous  speed. 

6.  I  made  them  lay  their  hands  in  mine  and  swear 
To  reverence  the  king  as  if  he  were 

Their  conscience,  and  their  conscience  as  their  King, 

To  break  the  heathen  and  uphold  the  Christ, 

To  ride  abroad  redressing  human  wrongs. 

To  speak  no  slander,  no,  nor  listen  to  it. 

To  honor  his  own  word  as  if  his  God's, 

To  lead  sweet  lives  in  purest  chastity. 

To  love  one  maiden  only,  cleave  to  her, 

And  worship  her  by  years  of  noble  deeds, 

Until  they  won  her;  for  in  deed  I  knew 

Of  no  more  subtle  master  under  heaven 

Than  is  the  maiden  passion  for  a  maid. 

To  teach  high  thought  and  amiable  words 

And  courtliness,  and  the  desire  of  fame. 

And  love  of  truth,  and  all  that  makes  a  man. 

Use  of  the  Infinitive 

The  infinitive  with  "to,"  as  well  as  the  infinitive  in  "ing," 
may  be  used: 

1.  As  subject  of  the  sentence: 

To-be-honest  is  to-be-fearless. 
Running  is  good  exercise. 

Note: — Used  with  "it"  as  expletive  the  infinitive-sub- 
ject is  placed  out  of  its  usual  order  in  the  sentence: — (See 
page  6,  above). 

It  is  good  to-be-here.  =  To-be-here  is  good. 

It  is  fun  skating  on  this  ice.  =  Skating  on  this  ice  is  fun. 

2.  As  object: 

I  like  to-row. 
I  like  roioing. 

Our  friends  told  us  to-take  the  first  road  to  the  left;  they  wished 
us  good  hunting. 


64  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

3.  As  object  of  a  preposition: 

He  was  about  io-go. 

He  was  thinking  of  going. 

4.  As  predicate  nominative : 

To-see  is  to-believe. 
Seeing  is  believing. 

Though  normally  a  noun  the  infinitive  with  ''to"  may  be 
an  adjective  or  an  adverb: 

There  is  a  time  to-weep  and  a  time  to-laugh  (adjectives). 
The  child  ran  to-meet  her  mother  (adverb). 

Note: — The  infinitive  in  ''ing"  may  be  governed  by  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case: 

His  buying  the  house  seemed  to  make  it  impossible  for  them  to 
go  east,  and  so  Mary's  going  was  a  great  surprise  to  her  friends. 


Practice 

Select   the   infinitives   and    participles   in   the   following 
sentences,  tell  how  they  are  used,  and  give  their  tenses: 

1.  Try  to  speak  more  slowly. 

2.  Climbing  the  last  thousand  feet  up  the  mountain  was  a  great 
effort. 

3.  I  mentioned  the  matter  to  him  before  asking  your  permission. 

4.  Do  you  dare  climb  that  mountain? 

5.  Speaking  of  mountain-climbing,  have  you  ever  tried  to.  climb 
Mt.  Whitney? 

6.  I  insist  on  your  speaking  out  plainly  in  open  meeting. 

7.  But  you  need  not  speak  bluntly. 

8.  Did  you  hear  him  say  who  were  going  to  attend? 

9.  I  would  not  hear  your  enemy  say  so. 

10.  I  will  not  have  you  bothering  me  with  useless  questions. 

11.  I  dare  say  you  think  my  questions  annoying. 

12.  No,  I  am  simply  tired  of  answering  you. 


VERBS 


65 


Perfect" 
Tenses 


Tense 

The  form  of  the  verb  which  indicates  the  time  in  which 
the  action  takes  place  is  called  the  tense  of  the  verb. 

Verbs  have  six  different  tenses: 

1.  An  action  may  take  place  in  the  present  time: 
Present  tense. 
Simple  J  2.  An  action  may  have  taken  place  in  past  time: 
Tenses  |  Past  tense. 

3.  An  action  may  take  place  in  future  time: 
Future  tense. 

4.  An  action  may  be  perfected  or  completed  at 
the  present  time:  Present-perfect  tense. 

5.  An  action  may  have  been  perfected  or  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time:  Past-perfect  tense. 

6.  An  action  may  be  considered  as  to  be  perfected 
or  completed  at  some  future  time:  Future- 
perfect  tense 

In  the  following  sentences  note  the  changes  made  in  the 
form  of  the  verb,  to  show  differences  in  time: 

1.  I  hear  sl  bird  singing.  Present  tense. 

2.  Is  it  the  same  I  heard  last  night?  Past  tense. 

3.  I  hope  I  shall-hear  it  again  tomorrow.  Future  tense. 

4.  I  have-heard  him  three  nights,  now.      Present-perfect  tense. 

5.  I  had-heard  him  two  weeks  ago.  Past-perfect  tense. 

6.  If  he  sings  tomorrow  night  I  shall- 

have-heard  him  three  times.  Future-perfect  tense. 

Observe   in   the   two   following   sentences   two   different 
uses  of  the  present  tense: 

The  Colonel  is-riding  this  morning. 
He  rides  for  an  hour  every  day. 

In  the  former  sentence  the  verb  is-riding  asserts  action 


m  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

that  is  going  on  at  the  time  of  speaking;  in  the  latter  the 
verb  rides  asserts  action  that  is  habitual: 

When  the  verb  asserts  action  (1)  as  taking  place,  or 
(2)  as  habitual  or  customary  at  the  time  of  speaking, 
it  is  in  the  present  tense. 
Notice  a  like  difference  in  the  uses  of  the  past  tense : 
The  Colonel  rode  his  old  sorrel  mare  yesterday. 
When  he  was  younger  he  rode  a  liveUer  horse. 

When  the  verb  asserts  action,  (1)  as  having  taken 
place,  or  (2)  as  habitual  or  customary,  in  past  time,  it 
is  in  the  past  tense. 

And  there  is  a  similar  difference  in  the  uses  of  the  future 
tense : 

The  Colonel  mil-ride  tomorrow  if  the  weather  permits: 

He  will-ride  every  fine  day,  year  in  and  year  out  (or  wiU-be-riding). 

When  the  verb  asserts  action  which  (1)  is  to  take 
place,  or  (2)  will  be  habitual  or  customary  at  some 
future  time,  it  is  in  the  future  tense. 

In  the  next  three  sentences  notice  the  differences  in  the 
forms  of  the  verb,  and  notice  carefully  how  in  every  case 
the  assertion  of  the  verb  gives  an  idea  of  the  action  as 
having  been  completed,  (or  perfected)  at  the  time  specified : 

1.  This  makes  three  times  he  has-ridden  round  the  park. 

2.  He  hod-ridden  three  times  round  the  park  before  I  came. 

3.  He  will-have-ridden  three  times  round  the  park,  when  he 
reaches  this  bench. 

The  present  tense  of  the  auxiliary  have  with  the  past 
participle  of  the  verb,  forms  the  present -perfect  tense. 

The  past  tense,  had,  of  the  auxiliary  have,  with  the 
past  participle  of  the  verb,  forms  the  past-perfect  tense. 

The  auxiliary  shall  {or  will)  and  the  present  of  the 
auxiliary  have,  together  with  the  past  participle  of  the 
verb,  form  the  future-perfect  tense. 


VERBS  67 


Tenses  in  the  Passive  Voice 

The  tenses  of  the  passive  voice  are  regularly  made  up  of 
some  form  of  the  auxiliary  he  with  the  past  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb.  They  are  similar  to  those  of  the  active 
voice : 

The  suit  is-being-made  this  week.  Present  tense. 

The  suit  was-being-made  last  week.  Past  tense. 

The  suit  will-be-done  by  Friday.  Future  tense. 

The  suit  ha.s-been-done  for  two  days.  Present-perfect  tense. 

The  suit  had-been-done  two  days  before.  Past-perfect  tense. 
The  suit  will-have-been-made  before  your 

return.  Future-perfect  tense. 

Practice 

I.  Change  italicized  verbs  in  these  sentences  to  the  past 
tense. 

II.  Change  italized  verbs  in  these  sentences  to  the  perfect 
tense. 

III.  Change  italicized  verbs  in  these  sentences  to  the  pas- 
sive voice. 

1.  Oh  wind  a  blowing  all  day  long! 

2.  Flee  as  a  bird  to  your  mountain. 

3.  The  bird  flies  fast  and  free. 

4.  The  men  are-laying  the  carpet. 

5.  The  river  overflows  its  banks. 

6.  The  book  lies  on  the  table. 

7.  Mary  comes  to  this  school. 

8.  George,  lay  the  book  on  the  table. 

9.  The  bell  rings. 

10.  The  boy  sets  the  trap. 

11.  They  sit  in  the  front  row. 

12.  The  birds  wake  me  early  every  morning. 

13.  George  smms  better  than  Harr>'. 

14.  Will  you  alight  from  your  horse? 

15.  The  birds  light  on  my  window  every  morning. 


68  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

16.  He  lights  the  fire  for  us  every  morning. 

17.  My  motlier  bids  me  bind  my  hair. 

18.  It  proves  to  be  true. 

19.  The  sun  sets  at  six  tonight. 

20.  They  throw  a  line  out  to  that  boat. 

21.  The  Japanese  merchant  bids-in  that  teak-wood  case. 

22.  Mary  dives  Hke  a  fish. 

23.,  Please  break  that  branch  of  lilac  for  me. 


Correct  Use  of  Tenses 

The  only  practical  difficulties  with  tenses  are  in  the  use  of 
the  subjunctive  mode  and  verbals,  and  in  dependent  phrases 
and  clauses. 

1.  In  the  subjunctive  mode  the  expression  of  statements 
contrary  to  fact  is  indicated  by  the  tense  employed: 

Thy  kingdom  come  (present  tense  to  express  a  wish  for  the 
future). 

Would  that  the  night  ivere  come  (past  tense  to  express  a  wish 
unfulfilled  in  the  present). 

If  I  just  could  have  had  sense  enough  to  hold  my  tongue!  (past- 
perfect  tense  to  express  a  wish  unfulfilled  in  past  time). 

2.  Verbals  themselves  may  be  present  or  past  in  time. 
But  they  can  merely  assert  their  own  action  as  complete 
or  incomplete  at  the  time  asserted  by  the  principal  verbs 
on  which  they  depend: 

Turning  (present  participle)  to  the  right  we  follow  (present)  the 
main  road  to  the  river. 

Turning  to  the  right  we  followed  (past)  the  main  road  to  the 
river. 

Having  given  (past  participle)  our  word  we  are  not  free  (present) 
to  break  it. 

Having  given  our  word  we  were  not  free  (past)  to  break  it. 

Your  coming  (present  infinitive)  was  (past)  eagerly  expected; 
your  going  will-be  (future)  equally  regretted. 

Our  having-covered  (perfect  infinitive)  the  distance  in  so  short  a 
time  was  what  he  could  not  (past)  understand. 


VERBS  69 

Your  having-supported  (perfect  infinitive)  your  country's  cause 
will  (future)  always  be  a  source  of  pride  to  your  friends. 
.  .. .  For  my  purpose  holds  (present) 

To-sail  beyond  the  sunset  and  the  baths 

Of  all  the  western  stars  until  I  die. 

To-have-failed  (past  infinitive)  is  (present)  a  misfortune;  not-to- 
have-tried  (past  infinitive)  would-be  a  disgrace. 

3.  In  general  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  a  dependent  clause 
should  agree  with  that  of  the  principal  statement: 

He  knows  he  can  do  it  if  he  likes  (present). 
He  knew  he  could  do  it  if  he  liked  (past). 

Of  course  when  the  sense  positively  calls  for  it  the  tenses 
of  independent  and  dependent  statement  may  disagree: 
He  knows  he  could-do  it,  or  could-have-done  it. 

Again,  when  the  verb  of  the  dependent  clause  states  an 
habitual  or  customary  fact  the  tense  of  the  dependent  verb 
is  present  regardless  of  the  principal  verb: 

Where  did  you  say  Yosemite  isf 

Practice 
I.  Which  of  the  forms  in  italics  is  right? 

1.  Where  did  you  say  Robert  is  (was)  today? 

2.  I  meant  to  call  {have  called)  on  you  yesterday. 

3.  Beowulf  is  (was)  a  hero  of  Saxon  lore  who  was  supposed  to 
kill  {to  have  killed)  the  great  fire  drake. 

4.  I  should  not  like  {have-liked)  to  have-done  it. 

5.  I  should  not  have  liked  to  do  {to  have-done)  it. 

6.  I  don't  see  how  anyone  could  say  that  Mary  is  {was)  prettier 
than  Alice. 

7.  Should  you  have  been  willing  to  drive  {to  have  driven)  my  car 
for  me? 

8.  I  meant  to  ask  {to  have  asked)  you  yesterday. 

9.  He  asked  me  to  tell  him  how  far  it  is  {was)  from  New  York 
to  Boston. 

10.  He  had  not  heard  that  you  and  she  are  {were)  sisters. 


70  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

11.  It  would  have  been  impossible  for  you  to  prevent  {to  have  prs' 
vented)  the  accident. 

12.  If  you  will  call  him  he  will  (would)  come. 

13.  Who  told  you  that  Mary  is  (was)  coming? 

14.  She  expected  to  call  (to  have  called)  on  you  tomorrow. 

15.  Who  would  have  thought  it  possible  to  ride  (to  have  ridden) 
this  distance  by  noon? 

16.  I  am  telegraphing  to  her  so  that  she  may  (might)  have  the 
house  ready. 

II.  In  the  following  sentences  give  the  mode  and  tense 
of  the  verbs  and  tell  how  they  agree  with  their  subject: 

1.  Col.  Roosevelt  said  that  a  herd  of  Zebras,  running  through 
the  streets  of  a  town  in  Africa,  knocked  a  girl  from  her  bicycle. 

2.  You  may  go  home  when  you  are  through. 

3.  John,  close  the  windows. 

4.  If  I  see  the  boy,  I  will  tell  him. 

5.  You  might  bring  the  boys  with  you,  when  you  come. 

6.  You  may  bring  the  girls  too,  if  you  wish. 

7.  Please  bring  me  my  shawl. 

8.  This  is  the  forest  primeval. 

9.  Did  you  say  you  would  come? 

10.  How  can  you  speak  so  rudely  I 

11.  You  might  have  been  mistaken. 

12.  You  have  been  too  careless  about  this  matter. 

13.  You  may  ride  my  horse. 

14.  Can  you  ride  that  horse? 

15.  I  can  skate  across  the  pond. 

16.  May  I  skate  across  the  pond? 

17.  I  ought  to  have  written  some  letters  today. 

18.  Let  not  your  heart  be  troubled. 

19.  I  mailed  your  letter. 

20.  I  have  mailed  your  letter. 

21.  I  had  sung  my  song  before  my  sister  came.  * 

22.  I  shall  give  you  my  book  when  I  finish  it. 

23.  Had  you  finished  the  book,  when  you  gave  it  to  me? 

24.  You  will  have  gone  twenty  miles  by  the  time  I  have  started. 

25.  You  have  broken  your  string. 

26.  Oh,  I  had  broken  that  before  you  came. 

27.  You  will  have  walked  five  miles  by  the  time  you  reach  their 
house. 


VERBS  71 

28.  I  caught  the  horse. 

29.  You  should  have  caught  the  horse. 

30.  He  has  caught  the  horse. 

31.  The  letter  has  been  mailed  by  the  boy. 

III.  In  the  following  sentences  indicate  changes  in  the 
verbs  to  show  a  difference  in  time;  tell  the  difference  in 
meaning:  and  give  the  tense  and  mode  of  every  verb: 

1.  He  sings  tenor. 

2.  He  sang  at  the  concert  last  night. 

3.  He  will  sing  tonight. 

4.  Do  you  see  that  hght? 

5.  He  saw  the  star  fall. 

6.  He  will  see  the  pictures. 

7.  I  invite  you  to  the  party. 

8.  I  am  inviting  the  girls  to  the  party. 

9.  She  invited  the  girls  to  the  party. 

10.  We  shall  invite  the  girls  to  the  party. 

11.  They  will  have  invited  the  girls  to  the  party. 

12.  I  had  invited  the  girls  to  the  party  before  I  received  your 
letter. 

Verb-Forms 
In  the  following  sentence  are  three  varieties  of  assertion: 
If  John  waits  much  longer  he  will-be-delaying  the  whole  expedi- 
tion; I  do-wish  he'd  hurry. 

These  varieties  are  called  verb-forms:  (1)  the  Simple, 
(2)  the  Progressive,  and  (3)  the  Emphatic.  Only  the 
Progressive  and  the  Emphatic  need  explanation.  They 
differ  from  the  Simple  Verb-form  in  always  using  some 
part  of  ''be"  or  **do"  to  make  the  assertion.  Even  in  the 
simpler  tenses  these  forms  are  compound;  they  employ 
verb-phrases. 

Progressive  Verb-form 

Compare  the  different  forms  of  the  present  tense  of  the 

verb  write: 

He  writes  books. 
He  is-writing  a  book. 


72  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

The  first  expresses  a  habit  or  custom;  the  second  ex- 
presses a  particular  action  in  progress  at  the  time  of  speak- 
ing. 

When  some  part  of  the  verb  "6e"  is  combined  with 
the  present  participle  to  show  that  action  is,  was,  or  will- 
be  going  on,  the  form  is  called  the  progressive  verb- form, 
and  its  phrase  the  progressive  verb-phrase. 

Emphatic  Verb-form 

Is  he  writing  a  book?    I  did-hear  that  he  was  but  I  do-not-know. 

When  some  part  of  the  verb  "do''  is  placed  before  the 
simple  active  verb  the  form  is  called  the  emphatic  verb- 
form,,  and  its  phrase  the  emphatic  verb-phrase. 

Rarely  the  progressive  and  the  emphatic  verb-forms  are 
combined : 

Do  let  us  be-hurrying  or  we  shall  delay  the  expedition. 

The  progressive  verb-form  is  also  used  in  the  passive 
voice,  in  the  present  and  past  indicative  and  the  past  sub- 
junctive. The  emphatic  verb-form  is  found  only  in  the 
active  voice,  in  the  present  and  past  indicative,  the  present 
and  past  subjunctive,  and  the  present  imperative. 

Note: — The  emphatic  verb-form  has  come  to  be  used 
idiomatically  when  no  special  emphasis  is  meant: 

/  don't-think-so  is  less  emphatic  than,  I-think-not-so; 

I-do-not-doubt  is  less  emphatic  than,  I-doubt-not. 

Practice 

I.  Bring  to  class: 

Five  emphatic  verb-phrases,  each  taken  from  the  Bible,  Shake- 
speare, Stevenson,  or  any  standard  author. 

Let  two  be  in  the  indicative;  two  in  the  imperative;  one  in  the 
subjunctive. 


VERBS  73 

II.  Give  mode  and  tt^nse  and  voice  of  the  following 
progressive  phrases: 

She  is  playing  in  the  garden. 

He  was  flying  his  kite  when  I  came  into  the  house. 

They  will  he  going  home  this  afternoon. 

You  should  have  been  doing  your  work  at  that  time. 

I  am  being  taught  to  dance. 

He  was  being  dined  when  I  came  into  the  grounds. 

If  he  was  being  shown  the  house  I  am  sorry  I  called  him  so  soon. 

If  he  were  being  shown  the  house  he  would  have  told  us. 

III.  Bring  in: 

Five  progressive  verb-phrases  from  the  Bible,  three  in  the  in- 
dicative, two  in  the  subjunctive; 

Five  progressive  verb-phrases  selected  from  Kipling  or  any 
standard  author.     Tell  mode,  tense,  voice. 

Person  and  Number 

The  regular  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number;  sometimes  it  requires  a  change  in  the  form  of 
the  verb  to  show  this  agreement: 

I  am;  thou  art;  he  is,  are  exceptional  variations; 
I  give;  thou  givest;  he  gives,  are  regular  variations. 

Similarly  the  verb  sometimes  changes  its  form  to  denote 
singular  or  plural  number: 

Singular  Plural 

The  child  laughs,  The  children  lav^h. 

The  child  is  here,  The  children  are  here. 

The  child  has  gone,  The  children  have  gone. 

The  changes  in  form  of  the  verb  to  make  the  agreement  in 
person  and  number  are  found  in  the  present  and  present- 
perfect  tenses.  But  the  so-called  solemn  style  (see  appendix 
for  the  conjugation  of  the  verb),  and  the  auxiliaries  shall 
and  will,  and  the  verb,  he,  however  used,  carry  their  changes 
in  form  through  other  tenses. 


74  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Note: — You,  though  used  in  the  singular,  is  plural  in  form 
and  always  takes  a  plural  verb: 

You  were  a  crack  shot  even  when  you  were  a  lad  of  fifteen. 

Sometimes  if  the  subject  is  plural  in  form  but  singular 
in  meaning  it  takes  a  singular  verb: 

The  news  is  encouraging. 

Physics  is  the  hardest  study  I  have. 

Correct  Use  of  Singular  and  Plural 

Each,  every,  many-a,  either  and  neither  are  singular.  When 
the  subject  consists  of  singular  nouns  or  pronouns  connected 
by  or,  either- or,  neither-nor,  the  verb  must  be  singular. 
Words  joined  to  the  subject  by  with,  together-with,  in- 
addition-to,  or  as-well-as,  are  parenthetical  and  do  not 
affect  the  number  of  the  verb.  A  verb  agrees  with  the 
antecedent  of  the  relative  pronoun. 

Practice 

I.  Insert  the  proper  form  of  the  verb  he  in  the  blank 
spaces : 

1.  That  kind  of  apples scarce. 

2.  Each  of  the  men provided  with  a  gun. 

3.  Neither  Mary  nor  Harry in  the  right  place. 

4.  Fifteen  minutes spent  every  morning  feeding  the  birds. 

5.  The  money  as  well  as  the  inclination lacking. 

6.  Every  one  of  those  dogs mine. 

7.  Two  times  five ten. 

8.  My  aunt  with  the  whole  family detained  by  the  storm. 

9.  Three  spoonfuls  of  butter enough  for  that  cake. 

II.  Which  is  the  better  form?    Give  reasons: 

1.  A  boat  with  two  fishermen  {has,  have)  come  into  the  harbor. 

2.  The  ship  with  all  its  crew  (were,  was)  lost. 

3.  Kipling  is  one  of  the  best  story  writers  that  {has,  have)  written 
during  the  last  decade. 


VERBS  75 

4.  Bring  me  one  of  the  shawls  that  (is,  are)  lying  on  my  lounge. 

5.  You  are  not  the  only  one  that  (has,  have)  been  fooled  by  him. 

6.  The  greater  part  of  the  audience  (was,  were)  charmed  by  her. 

7.  He  is  one  of  those  singers  who  (charm,  charms)  their  listeners. 

III.  Fill  in  blanks  with  the  correct  verb: 

1.  He  is down  in  the  hammock  watching  a  squirrel. 

2.  After  he down  he  remembered  that  he  had  not the 

camp  fire  for  the  evening. 

3.  Those  logs  have in  the  water  too  long.    Do  not them 

on  the  fire;  they  will  not  burn. 

4.  I  like  to on  the  ground  and  look  up  at  the  stars  when  I 

am  in  the  mountains. ' 

5.  those  boughs  under  that  tree  those  old  ones  have  been 


on  too  long.    We on  them  all  last  month. 


6.  You  are them  too  close  to  the  tree. 

7.  The  bird  has four  eggs  in  that  nest.    I  shall in 

wait  for  that  old  cat  and  if  I my  eyes  on  her  while  she  is  climb- 
ing toward  the  nest  I  will  teach  her  a  lesson. 

8.  Mary  said  you  had my  book  on  the  table  and  had 

down  for  a  nap. 

9.  You  will  catch  cold  if  you too  near  that  window. 

10.  One  of  those  girls bring  the  letter. 

11.  Some  of  those  girls students. 

12.  The  class divided  in choice. 

13.  Mary  as  well  as  Charlotte taking  lessons  of  her. 

14.  Pontics not  interesting  to  me. 

15.  Those  kinds  of  scissors to  cut  with. 

16.  That  kind  of  scissors hard  to  cut  with. 

17.  Lives  of  Greek  Heroes the  best  of  all  the  books  in  that 

set. 

18.  either  of  you  going  to  the  play  tonight? 


The  Principal  Parts 

The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are: 

Pres.  Inf.        Past  Ind.        Pres.  Part.        Past  Part. 
move  moved  moving  moved 

see  saw  seeing  seen 


76  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Principal  parts  are  samples  of  the  verb,  chosen  to 
show  the  chief  differences  in  asserting  the  time  and 
manner  of  the  option. 

One  or  another  of  these  parts  may  be  employed  to  make 
compound  forms: 

I  am-moving  I  did-move  I  have  {had,  will-have)  moved. 

The  principal  parts  also  show  whether  a  verb  is  regular 
(weak)  or  irregular  (strong). 

Pres.  Inf.  Past  Ind.  Pres.  Part.  Past  Part. 


Strong:  fall 

fell 

falling 

fallen 

Weak:    fell 

felled 

felling 

felled  (=  cause  to  fall) 

Strong:  lie 

lay 

lying 

lain 

Weak:    lay 

laid 

laying 

laid  (=  cause  to  lie) 

Strong:  rise 

rose 

rising 

risen 

Weak:    raise 

raised 

raising 

raised  (=  cause  to  rise) 

Strong:  sit 

sat 

sitting 

sat 

Weak:    set 

set 

setting 

set  (=  cause  to  sit) 

Weak  verbs  regularly  form  the  past  tense  by  adding 
the  ending  d,  or  ed,  or  t,  to  the  present. 
Strong  verbs  regularly  form  the  past  tense  by  chang- 
ing the  vowel  without  adding  an  ending. 

Note: — The  verb  set  though  really  weak  has  a  slight  ir- 
regularity in  the  past  indicative  and  past  participle  which 
have  dropped  the  ending  because  it  is  hard  to  unite  the 
sound  with  the  final  letter  of  the  present  indicative. 

Similar  verbs  are: 


hit 

hit 

hitting 

hit 

put 

put 

putting 

put 

bet 

bet 

betting 

bet 

Strong  or  Irregular  Verbs 

The  following  strong  verbs  are  examples  of  variations 
in  form: 


VERBS 


77 


Pres.  Inf. 

Past  Ind. 

Pres.  Part. 

Past  Part. 

(mixed  verbs)    be 

was 

being 

been 

go 

went 

going 

gone 

(pure  verbs)       bid 

bade 

bidding 

bidden 

bring 

brought 

bringing 

brought 

buy 

bought 

buying 

bought 

choose 

chose 

choosing 

chosen 

do 

did 

doing 

done 

drink 

drank 

drinking 

drunk 

fly 

flew 

flying 

flown 

forget 

forgot 

forgetting 

forgotten 

hide 

hid 

hiding 

hidden 

ring 

rang 

ringing 

rung 

seek 

sought 

seeking 

sought 

speak 

spoke 

speaking 

spoken 

take 

took 

taking 

taken         ^ 

teach 

taught 

teaching 

taught 

think 

thought 

thinking 

thought 

wear 

wore 

wearing 

worn 

write 

wrote 

writing 

written 

Some  verbs  have  both  strong  and  weak  conji 

Ligations: 

work 

wrought 

working 

wrought 

worked 

working 

worked 

Note: — For  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  see  Appendix  A. 


Practice 
I.  Give  the  following  forms: 

1.  The  active  progressive  of  go. 

2.  The  passive  indicative  of  make. 

3.  The  passive  present  progressive  of  kill. 

4.  The  active  present  progressive  of  love. 

5.  The  active  present,  singular,  subjunctive  of  h,ugh. 

6.  The  active  present  progressive  of  lie  (to  recUne) . 

7.  The  active  past  and  present-perfect  of  sing. 

8.  The  infinitives  and  participles  of  run. 


78  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

II.  Use  the  correct  form  of  the  verb: 

1.  I  wish  you  (past-perfect  of  give)  me  one. 

2.  The  airship  (past  of  Jiy)  over  the  field  through  which  the  river 
(past  of  flow). 

3.  They  (past  of  lay)  the  new  stone  where  the  old  log  (past- 
perfect  of  lie)  so  long. 

4.  He  (past  of  sit)  down  on  the  ground  and  the  children  (past 
of  lie)  in  the  grass  at  his  feet. 

5.  They  (past  of  bring)  some  flowers  and  (past  of  make)  a  wreath, 
and  while  they  (past-progressive  of  make)  it,  he  (past  of  tell)  them 
stories. 

6.  The  boat  (past-perfect  of  go)  half  an  hour  when  we  (past  of 
reach)  the  wharf. 

7.  They  (past  of  fell)  the  tree  and  let  it  (lie,  lay)  where  it  (past- 
perfect  of  fall). 

8.  He  (past  of  rise)  up  in  bed,  reached  for  the  window  shade, 
and  (past  of  raise)  it. 

9.  He  (past  of  set)  the  water-glass  on  the  table  near  which  he 
(past  progressive  of  sit). 

10.  The  water  (past  of  freeze)  in  the  bucket;  it  has  been  years 
since  water  (present-perfect  of  freeze)  in  this  locahty. 

11.  If  you  go  out  without  a  wrap  you  (future  of  freeze). 

12.  I  (future-perfect  of  make)  five  dresses  when  this  is  finished. 

13.  (Potential  auxiliary  showing  permission)  I  go  down  town? 

14.  If  (past  subjunctive  denoting  impossibiUty)  you,  I  (would 
should)  not  do  that. 


VERBS 


79 


Kind 


Verbs 


2.  Auxiliaries 


3.  Verbals  • 


Voice 


Infinitives 


Form 


Used 


Outline  Summary 

i   xr    I     T^  f  Transitive,  Intransitive. 

1.  Verbs  Proper  |  g^^^^^^  ^^^^^  Conjugation. 

Perfect  tense  auxiliaries:  have,  has, 

had. 
Future  tense  auxiliaries:  shall  and 

will,  should  and  wovld. 
Potential    auxiliaries:    ought,    must, 
may,  can,  might,  will,  shall,  would, 
could,  should. 
Emphatic  auxiliaries:  do,  did. 
Progressive  auxiliaries:  all  the  forms 

of  he. 
Passive  auxiliaries:  have,  and  he. 
{  Present. 
Participles -I  Past. 

[  Perfect,  active,  passive. 
Present,  active,  passive. 
Past,  active,  passive. 
Active. 
Passive. 
Indicative. 
Subjunctive. 
Imperative. 
Present. 
Past. 
Future. 
Perfect. 
I  Past  perfect. 
I  Future  perfect. 
[  First. 
Person    ]  Second. 
[  Third. 

Number    ^i^^^^^- 
^^^^^  I  Plural 

1.  Verbs,  to  assert  the  action  performed  or  received 

by  the  subject. 

2.  Participles,  to  serve  as  adjectives. 

3.  Infinitives,  to  serve  as  substantives. 


Mode 


Tense 


CHAPTER  IV 

Adjectives  and  Adverbs 

* 

Nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs  are  enough  in  themselves 
to  make  complete  sentences.  However,  taken  by  themselves 
they  cannot  express  much  beyond  the  simplest  ideas.  To 
express  thoughtfully  these  parts-of-speech  must  be  modified. 

The  chief  modifiers  are  adjectives  and  adverbs.  Adjec- 
tives modify  nouns.  Adverbs  modify  verbs;  they  may  also 
modify  adjectives  and  other  adverbs. 

Notice  how  much  the  writer  of  the  following  letter  de- 
pends on  the  modifying  words  to  express  his  thought: 

The  new  French  teacher  "isn't  half-bad,"  as  English  Harry  says. 
He  is  really  a  very  good  fellow.  I  truly  think  he  likes  his  dry  old 
subject  and,  what  is  more,  that  he  likes  us,  most  of  us,  so  that  he 
seldom  gets  angry,  even  when  he  can't  make  out  the  queer  sounds 
we  are  making.  Dull  as  I  am  at  languages  and  that  sort  of  thing, 
he  even  likes  me  pretty  well.  He  likes  Tom  better,  though,  and  of- 
course  he  likes  the  clever  Harry  best.  I  hope  he  will  be  more  su£cess- 
ful  than  the  other  men  have  been;  he  is  the  third  we  have  tried  in 
two  years.    What  interesting  things  have  been  happening  to  you? 

The,  more,  most,  two,  are  limiting  adjectives. 

New,  French,  half-bad,  English,  angry,  queer,  dull,  clever, 
successful  are  descriptive  adjectives. 

That,  other  are  pronominal  adjectives. 

Really,  very,  truly,  seldom,  even,  pretty,  well,  better,  of- 
course,  best,  most  are  simple  adverbs. 

When  is  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

What  is  an  interrogative  adjective, 

80 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  81 

Adjectives 

Limiting  Adjectives 

Articles 
Boys  like  to  play. 
A  boy  likes  to  play. 
The  healthy  boy  Ukes  to  play. 

Observe  these  three  sentences.  You  will  find  there  is  a 
difference  in  form,  and  a  difference  in  meaning,  although 
the  assertions  made  by  the  predicates  are  the  same.  The 
change  is  made  in  the  modifications  of  the  subjects. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  predicate  asserts  a  characteristic 
common  to  all  boys,  and  the  subject  hoys  has  no  modifier. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  meaning  is  modified  by  having 
the  subject  limited  to  one  boy.  No  special  boy  is  spoken 
of;  the  assertion  is  made  of  any  one  boy  among  all  boys. 
This  modification  is  denoted  by  the  article  a  which  limits 
the  subject. 

In  the  third  sentence  the  meaning  is  still  further  modified 
by  having  the  subject  limited  to  one  special  boy,  and  this 
modification  is  denoted  by  the  word  ^Hhe^^  which  limits  the 
subject. 

Since  a  or  its  other  form  an,  and  the  are  used  to 
limit  the  meaning  of  nouns  they  are  limiting  adjectives: 
they  are  called  articles. 

The  article  a  or  an  limits  indefinitely. 
The  article  the  limits  definitely. 

Numerals 
One  boy  and  three  girls  came. 

In  this  sentence  one  and  three  limit  the  nouns  hoy  and  girls 
to  a  definite  number. 


82  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

When  numerals   are  used  to   limit  the  meaning  of 
nouns  they  are  called  limiting  adjectives. 


Pronominal  Adjectives 

Thai  hat  is  mine;  this  hat  is  yours,  but  you  may  wear  that  one 
if  you  Uke. 

Neither  hat  is  very  becoming,  I  wish  you  had  another  hat. 

In  these  two  sentences  we  have  words  that  we  have  been 
studying  as  pronouns,  but  they  cannot  be  pronouns  here 
because  they  do  not  take  the  place  of  nouns.  The  nouns 
are  here  too,  and  these  pronominal  words  modify  them  in 
place  of  being  substituted  for  them. 

Take  the  sentences  on  page  37,  Chapter  II: 

This  is  my  section,  porter,  and  that  is  my  baggage;  these  are  my 
umbrellas,  and  those  are  my  valises. 

The  same  things  might  be  said  in  the  following  way: 

This  section  is  mine,  porter,  and  that  baggage;  these  umbrellas 
are  mine,  too,  and  those  valises. 

When  pronouns  are  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of 
nouns  and  are  not  used  as  substitutes  for  them,  they  he- 
come  prnnnminr^l  adlpctinpa. 

Not  only  demonstrative  pronouns  but  interrogative* 
relative,  and  indefinite  pronouns  may  become  pronominal 
adjectives: 

Which  (pronoun)  is  my  hat? 
Which  (adjective)  hat  is  mine? 

Whatever  (pronoun)  you  undertake,  work  at  it  with  a  will. 
Whatever  (adjective)  task  you  undertake,  work  at  it  with  a  will. 

Some  (adjective)  men  exercise  vigorously,  and  some  (pronoun) 
do  not. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  83 


Practice 

Select  the  limiting  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences 
and  tell  how  they  limit;  note  whether  they  are  articles, 
numerals  or  pronominals: 

A  boy's  will  is  the  wind's  will 

And  the  thoughts  of  youth  are  long,  long  thoughts. 

And  close  behind  her  stood 

Eight  daughters  of  the  plough  stronger  than  men. 

I  said :  ^Vhen  first  the  world  began, 
Young  Nature  thro'  five  cycles  ran 
And  in  the  sixth  she  moulded  man. 

This  truth  within  thy  mind  rehearse, 

That  in  a  boundless  universe 

Is  boundless  better,  boundless  worse. 


Descriptivb  Adjectives 
A  tall,  white  house  stands  within  the  garden  wall. 
In  this  sentence  the  words  tall  and  white  describe  the 
noun  house. 

Adjectives  which  modify  the  meaning  of  nouns  by 
describing  them  are  called  descriptive  adjectives, 

Harry  wore  a  Roman  coin  on  his  watch-fob. 

In  this  sentence  the  word  Roman  modifies  the  noun  coin 
by  describing  it;  therefore  it  is  a  descriptive  adjective. 
Roman  is  an  adjective  derived  from  the  proper  noun  Rome. 

When  an  adjective  is  derived  from  a  proper  noun  it 
is  called  a  proper  adjective  and  should  always  have  a 
capital  for  its  initial  letter. 

It  is  better  to  be  a  self-controlled  man,  than  a  devil-may-care 
fellow. 


84  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

When  adjectives  are  made  up  of  two  or  more  words  they 
are  called  compound  adjectives. 

The  adjective  may  complete  the  assertion  of  the  verb 
at  the  same  time  it  is  describing  or  Hmiting  the  meaning 
of  the  subject  or  the  object. 

The  ground  is  white. 

The  snow  makes  the  ground  white. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  adjective  white  completes  the 
assertion  of  the  verb  and  at  the  same  time  describes  the  sub- 
ject. 

When  an  adjective  completes  the  assertion  of  the  verb 
and  describes  the  subject  it  is  called  a  predicate  adjec- 
tive, or  attribute  complement. 

In  the  second  sentence  the  adjective  white,  as  attribute 
of  the  infinitive  to  be  helps  complete  the  assertion  of  the 
verb  makes  and  describes  the  object  ground  (makes  the 
ground  to-be  white). 

When  the  adjective  helps  complete  the  assertion  of  the 
verb,  and  describes  the  object  it  is  called  an  attribute 
of  the  object,  or  objective  complement. 

Practice 

I.  Select  and  classify  the  adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  However,  the  egg  only  got  larger  and  larger,  and  more  and 
more  human,  and  when  she  came  within  a  few  yards  of  it,  she  saw 
that  it  had  eyes  and  a  nose  and  mouth. 

2.  The  sea  was  wet  as  wet  could  be. 
The  sands  were  dry  as  dry. 

3.  Somewhat  apart  from  the  village,  and  nearer  the  Basin  of 

Minas, 
Benedict  Bellefontaine,  the  wealthiest  farmer  of  Grand-Pre, 
Dwelt  on  his  goodly  acres. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  85 

4.  Everything,  from  the  hght  and  the  lapis-lazuH  flagstones,  to 
the  shimmering  background  into  which  the  last  arches  run  and 
disappear,  everything,  down  to  the  smallest  objects,  is  of  an  un- 
real, intense,  fairy-like  blue. 

5.  Certainly  the  bird  will  be  blue,  since  everjrthing  here  is  blue. 
Heavens,  how  beautiful  it  all  is! 

6.  The  clouds  were  pure  and  white  as  flocks  new  shorn, 
And  fresh  from  the  clear  brook;  sweetly  they  slept 

On  the  blue  fields  of  heaven,  and  then  there  crept 
A  httle  noiseless  noise  among  the  leaves. 
Born  of  the  very  sigh  that  silence  heaves. 

7.  I  was  light-hearted, 

And  many  pleasures  to  my  vision  started; 
So  I  straightway  began  to  pluck  a  posy 
Of  luxuries  bright,  milky,  soft  and  rosy. 

8.  Here  are  sweet  peas,  on  tip-toe  for  a  flight: 
With  wings  of  gentle  flush  o'er  delicate  white, 
And  taper  fingers  catching  at  all  things, 

To  bind  them  all  about  with  tiny  rings. 

9.  Linger  awhile  upon  some  bending  plank 
That  leans  against  a  streamlet's  rushy  bank, 
And  watch  intently  Nature's  gentle  doings: 
They  will  be  found  softer  than  ring-dove's  cooings. 

10.  And  still  she  slept  an  azure-lidded  sleep. 
In  blanched  linen,  smooth,  and  lavender'd. 
While  he  from  forth  the  closet  brought  a  heap 
Of  candied  apple,  quince,  and  plum,  and  gourd, 
With  jellies  soother  than  the  creamy  curd, 
And  lucent  syrops,  tinct  with  cinnamon; 
Manna  and  dates :  spiced  dainties,  every  one, 
From  silken  Samarcand  to  cedar'd  Lebanon. 


II.  Choose  from  any  poem  of  Temiyson  with  which  you 
are    acquainted : 

Ten  descriptive  adjectives. 

Five  descriptive  adjectives  used  as  attribute  complement. 

Ten  pronominal  adjectives. 

Ten  numerical  adjectives. 


86  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Comparison  of  Adjectives 

Adjectives  and  adverbs  do  not  make  any  change  in  form 
for  person  and  case,  and  with  the  exception  of  the  adjec- 
tives this  and  that,  they  make  no  change  for  number.  (Long 
ago  they  changed  in  form  as  the  noun  changed.)  The  only 
change  they  make  in  form  is  for  the  purpose  of  showing  a 
difference  in  degree  of  the  quality  which  the  noun  possesses. 
This  change  is  called  Comparison. 

There  are  three  different  degrees  of  comparison:  the  posi- 
tive, the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

When  the  adjective  merely  names  some  quality  pos- 
sessed by  the  noun,  and  does  not  denote  the  degree,  the 
adjective  is  in  the  positive  degree: 

This  apple  is  not  ripe. 

When  the  adjective  denotes  a  greater  degree  of  the 
quality  of  an  object  than  is  possessed  by  some  other  ob- 
ject with  which  it  is  compared,  it  is  in  the  comparative 
degree: 

This  is  a  riper  apple  than  that  one. 

When  an  adjective  denotes  a  quality  as  possessed  to 
the  greatest  degree  by  some  object  among  a  number  in 
comparison  {two  or  more) ,  the  adjective  is  in  the  super- 
lative degree: 

This  is  the  ripest  apple  in  the  basket. 

Note  the  different  ways  in  which  the  degrees  of  compari- 
son are  shown  in  the  following  groups  of  sentences: 

1.  See  what  a  ripe  apricot. 
Yes,  but  here  is  a  riper  one. 
Oh,  but  this  is  the  ripest  I  have  found  on  the  tree. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS 


87 


2.  What  an  attractive  place  for  the  camp. 

Is  it  more  attractive  than  the  spot  you  found  down  the  canon? 
This  is  the  most  attractive  spot  I  have  found  on  the  mountain. 

3.  Stop  and  rest;  you  are  tired. 

I  am  less  tired  than  you  are;  you  carried  that  heavy  pack. 
I  am  the  least  tired  of  us  all;  I  rode  the  burro  all  the  way. 

4.  This  is  a  had  road. 

Is  it  worse  than  the  road  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains? 
It  seems  to  me  it  is  the  worst  road  in  the  county. 

In  the  first  group  the  comparative  decree  is  formed  by 
adding  er  to  the  positive,  and  the  superlative  degree  is 
formed  by  adding  est   to   the   positive; — rij)e -riper, -ripest. 

In  the  second,  third  and  fourth  groups  the  comparative 
and  the  superlative  degree  are  formed  by  the  use  of  different 
words. 

Good, -better, -best ;-much, -more, -most,'  ascending  scale. 

Bad,  worse,-worst;4ittle, -less, -least,-  descending  scale. 


Adjectives  Irregularly  Compared 


Positive                   Comparative 

Superlative 

little 

less 

least 

p 

farther 

farthest 

far 

further 

furthest 

many  | 
much  J 

more 

most 

near 

nearer 

'  nearest 
next 

ill 
bad 

worse 

worst 

good  ' 
well   ^ 

better 

best 

laf^ 

latter 

last 

later 


88 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


Some  Adjectives  Compared  In  Two  Ways 
Positive  Comparative  Superlative 


lovely 


able 


lovelier 
more  lovely 
abler 
more  able 


loveliest 
most  lovely 
ablest 
most  able. 


Some  Adjectives  Have  No  Positive  Form 
Comparative  Superlative 


outer 

upper 
utter 
iimer 


outmost 

outermost. 

uppermost 

uttermost 

inmost 

imiermost 


Rules  for  the  Use  of  Comparative  and  Superlative 
Use  the  comparative  degree  to  indicate  a  comparison 

between  two  objects  or  two  sets  of  objects,  or  alternative 

objects. 

Use    the    superlative    degree    to   indicate    a    comparison 

among  all  the  objects  considered. 

Comparative.  Apples  are  finer  than  oranges. 

Apples  are  finer  than  any  other  fruit. 

Apples  are  finer  than  oranges,  peaches,  or 
apricots. 
Superlative.      Apples  are  the  finest  of  all  fruits. 

Note: — In  using  the  comparative  form  be  careful  to 
make  the  latter  term  exclude  the  former.  Thus  the  sentence, 
"Apples  are  finer  than  any  fruit,^'  is  nonsense,  for  apples  are 
themselves  fruit.  Amend  the  sentence  to  read,  ''Apples  are 
finer  than  any  other  fruit." 

In  using  the  superlative  form  be  careful  to  make  the  latter 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  89 

term  include  the  former.  Thus  the  sentence,  "Apples  are 
the  finest  of  any  other  fruit/'  is  nonsense,  for  apples  are 
apples  and  not  other  fruit. 

Care  in  the  Use  of  Adjectives 

When  used  as  pronouns,  this  and  these  refer  to  things 
near  to  hand;  that  and  those  to  things  farther  removed. 

Be  careful  to  use  this  and  that  to  modify  nouns  in  the 
singular,  and  these  and  those  to  modify  nouns  in  the  plural, 
as: 

This  apple  is  sweet;  that  apple  is  sour. 
These  apples  are  sweet;  those  apples  are  sour. 

This  kind  of  apple  is  sweet;  that  kind  of  apple  is  sour. 

These  kinds  of  apples  are  sweet;  those  kinds  of  apples  are  sour. 

Be  careful  in  the  use  of  a.  few  and  a  little: 
Few  denotes  not  many; 
Little  denotes  not  much. 

Give  me  a  few  friends  and  a  little  money,  and  T  can  be  contented. 
He  has  fewer  friends  and  less  money  than  his  brother  had. 

In  using  connected  nouns  which  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  one  another,  be  careful  to  repeat  the  article  before 
each,  as: 

I  do  not  know  which  was  the  more  lovely,  the  vase  or  the  rose. 

When  two  or  more  connected  adjectives  describe  one 
object  use  the  article  before  the  first  adjective  only: 

He  wore  a  blue  and  green  tie. 

But  when  two  or  more  connected  adjectives  modify  dif- 
ferent nouns,  use  the  article  before  each  adjective: 

He  found  an  orange  and  an  apple  orchard. 
He  owns  a  silver  and  a  gold  mine. 


90  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Use  either  and  neither  when  referring  to  two  objects  only; 
any  and  none  when  referring  to  more  than  two: 

Neither  hat  can  be  worn. 

You  may  choose  any  one  of  those  five  ties,  or  none  of  them. 

Practice 

I.  Indicate  the  correct  adjectives  for  the  following: 

Do  you  like kind  of  candy? 

Do  you  like  those of ? 

Mother  will  give  you  four  of of  apples. 

Bring  me  six  of  that of  roses. 

Bring  me  five  of  those of  grapes. 

II.  Oive  the  degrees  of  all  the  adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences: 

1.  See  what  a  lovely  shell, 
Small  and  pure  as  a  pearl, 
Lying  close  to  my  foot, 
Frail,  but  a  work  divine, 
Made  so  fairily  well. 

With  delicate  spire  and  whorl, 
How  exquisitely  minute, 
A  miracle  of  design. 

2.  Happy  in  this,  she  is  not  yet  so  old 
But  she  may  learn;  happier  then  in  this. 
She  is  not  bred  so  dull  but  she  can  learn; 
Happiest  of  all  in  that  her  gentle  spirit 
Commits  itself  to  yours  to  be  directed. 

3.  "Deafer,"  said  the  blameless  king, 
"Gawain,  and  blinder  unto  holy  things 
Hope  not  to  make  thyself  by  idle  vows. 
Being  too  blind  to  have  desire  to  see." 

4.  The  little  bird  sits  at  his  door  in  the  sun 

Atilt  like  a  blossom  among  the  leaves. 
And  lets  his  illumined  being  o'ernm 
With  the  deluge  of  summer  it  receives; 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  91 

His  mate  feels  the  eggs  beneath  her  wings, 
And  the  heart  in  her  dumb  breast  flutters  and  sings; 

He  sings  to  the  wide  world,  and  she  to  her  nest, 

In  the  nice  ear  of  Nature  which  song  is  the  best? 

5.  0  son,  thou  hast  not  true  humihty. 

The  highest  virtue,  the  mother  of  them  all: 

6.  Can  this  be  Christmas — sweet  as  May, 
With  drowsy  sun,  and  dreamy  air, 
And  new  grass  pointing  out  the  way 
For  flowers  to  follow,  every  where? 

7.  While  Kings  of  eternal  evil 
Yet  darken  the  hills  about, 
Thy  part  is  with  broken  sabre 
To  rise  on  the  last  redoubt; 
To  fear  not  sensible  failure, 
Nor  covet  the  game  at  all. 
But  fighting,  fighting,  fighting, 
Die  driven  against  the  wall. 

8.  Take  temperance  to  thy  breast. 
While  yet  is  the  hour  of  choosing, 
As  arbitress  exquisite 

Of  all  that  shall  thee  betide; 
For  better  than  fortune's  best 
Is  mastery  in  the  using. 
And  sweeter  than  anything  sweet 
The  art  to  lay  it  aside! 


92 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


Kind 


Adjectives 


Outline  Summary 

1.  Limiting 

2.  Descriptive 


3.  Interrogative 


articles 

numerals 

pronominals 

common 

proper 


{positive 
comparative 
superlative 


Use 


To  modify  nouns. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  93 

Adverbs 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

The  simple  adverb  may  denote  the  time,  the  place,  the 
degree,  or  the  manner  in  which  the  verb  performs  its  action; 
or  it  may  denote  the  degree  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the 
adjective  or  by  another  adverb. 

Edith  is  coming  home  tomorrow.     Adverb  denoting  time. 

Jack,  come  here.  Adverb  denoting  place. 

Richard  rode  slowly  home.  Adverb  denoting  manner. 

He  has  nearly  finished  his  work.     Adverb  denoting  degree. 

The  walls  are  dark  purple.     Adverb  denoting  degree  of 

adjective. 

The  walls  are  very  dark  purple. — Adverb  denoting  degree 

of  adverb. 

Adverbs  very  closely  resemble  adjectives.  Indeed  there 
are  some  words  that  without  change  of  form  are  either 
adjective  or  adverb,  and  to  decide  which  part-of-speech  a 
given  word  is,  one  has  to  note  carefully  its  use  in  the  sen- 
tence. 

You  look  very  well  tonight. 

Well  is  here  used  to  show  condition;  therefore  it  is  an 
adjective. 

You  did  that  work  well. 

Well  is  here  used  to  show  mamier;  therefore  it  is  an  ad- 
verb. 

James  ran  so  fast  I  could  not  catch  him. 

Fast  is  here  used  to  show  manner;  therefore  it  is  an  ad- 
verb. 

What  &fast  horse  James  has! 

Fast  is  here  used  to  describe  horse;  therefore  it  is  an  ad- 
jective. 


94  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

You  may  go  if  you  will  not  walk  too  far. 

Here  far  is  used  to  denote  distance  and  place;  therefore 
it  is  an  adverb. 

You  may  be  very  homesick  when  you  reach  that  far  country. 

Here  far  is  used  to  describe  country;  therefore  it  is  an 
adjective. 

Please  give  me  a  little  more  sugar  in  my  tea. 

Here  little  is  used  to  show  degree ;  therefore  it  is  an  adverb. 

What  a  little  girl  you  are! 

Here  little  is  used  to  describe  girl;  therefore  it  is  an  ad- 
jective. 

Come  early  that  you  may  get  a  good  seat. 

Here  early  is  used  to  show  time ;  therefore  it  is  an  adverb. 

Mother  sent  you  some  of  our  early  corn. 

Here  early  describes  corn;  therefore  it  is  an  adjective. 

Sometimes  it  is  rather  difficult  to  decide,  even  by  the 
use,  whether  the  word  used  is  an  adverb  or  a  predicate  ad- 
jective. This  is  especially  true  when  the  word  follows  such 
a  verb  as  taste,  smell,  look,  seem,  sound,  feel.    (See  page  51). 

Practice 

In  the  following  sentences  choose  the  correct  modifiers: 

1.  That  apple  tastes  {bad  badly). 

2.  The  rat  smells  the  cheese  (cautious  cautiously). 

3.  Mother  looks  (bad  badly  ill). 

4.  The  coat  fits  (bad  badly). 

5.  He  feels  {warmly  warm)  on  the  subject  of  labor  unions. 

6.  He  saw  his  duty  {plain  plainly). 

7.  The  girl  looked  {shy  shyly)  at  the  strangers. 

8.  The  girl  looks  {shy  shyly), 

COMPAKISON  OF  AdVERBS 

Simple  adverbs  also  resemble  adjectives  in  that  they 
vary  their  forms  to  show  different  degrees  of  comparison. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  95 

The  comparative  degree  of  the  adverb,  Uke  that  of  the 
adjective,  is  formed  by  adding  er,  or  by  prefixing  more  or 
less  to  the  positive  form. 

Positive         fast         long         far  hard  short 

Comparative  faster      longer      farther      harder      shorter 
Superlative    fastest     longest    farthest    hardest     shortest 
Positive  swiftly  sweetly  warmly 

Comparative      more  swiftly    more  sweetly    more  warmly 
Superlative        most  swiftly     most  sweetly     most  warmly 

Some  adverbs  have  irregular  forms  of  comparison: 

Positive  ill  well  much  little 

Comparative    worse  better  more  less 

Superlative      worst  best  most  least 

Practice 
I.  Fill  in  blanks  with  a  proper  adverb: 

1.  He  sings .  4.  Her  dress  was torn. 

2.  The  fire  burns .  5.  My  father  rises . 

3.  The  men  work .  6.  Speak if  you  wish  me  to 

understand. 

II.  Determine  what  parts  of  speech  the  italicized  adverbs 
modify  and  tell  whether  each  adverb  denotes  time,  place, 
manner,  or  degree: 

1.  She  drives  by  our  house  very  often. 

2.  Very  beautiful  pictures  are  in  that  magazine. 

3.  Always  speak  kindly  but  firmly  to  wilful  children. 

4.  He  should  speak  more  gently. 

5.  You  have  gone  there  a  great  many  times. 

6.  Step  very  quietly  and  don't  remain  more  than  ten  minutes. 

III.  Distinguish   between   the   adverbs   and   adjectives 
in  the  following  sentences  and  tell  what  they  denote : 

1.  He  looks  well,  and  sleeps  well,  and  works  well,  but  he  com- 
plains of  not  feeling  well. 


96  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

2.  Speak  a  little  lower;  the  little  child  is  quietly  sleeping,  and  a 
little  quiet  rest  may  be  all  she  needs  to  make  her  well. 

3.  We  took  the  fast  train.  I  never  rode  so  fast  before;  it  was 
too  fast  to  be  safe.  We  reached  home  for  luncheon,  but  we  had  to 
fast  for  breakfast. 

4.  What  a  smoothly  running  car  this  is!  Your  engine  must  run 
smoothly  or  it  is  an  unusually  smooth  road. 

5.  It  is  a  calm,  peaceful  night;  the  moon  beams  peacefully  and 
calmly  down  upon  the  earth  and  all  is  quiet  and  serene. 

Interrogative  Adverbs 

Why,  how,  when,  where,  etc.,  when  used  in  asking  questions 

are  called  interrogative  adverbs: 

Why  did  you  go  home? 

How  did  you  enjoy  the  concert? 

Where  are  you  going  for  your  vacation  this  summer? 

When  do  you  start  on  your  camping  trip? 

Modal  Adverbs 

Perhaps,  however,  possibly,  surely,  probably,  are  adverbs 
which  sometimes  seem  to  modify  the. whole  sentence  rather 
than  the  verb  or  some  adjective  in  the  sentence.  In  this 
use  they  are  called  modal  adverbs : 

Perhaps,  1  shall  go  East  this  summer. 

The  boys  could  not  come,  however,  so  we  put  off  the  picnic  until 
next  Saturday. 

Possibly,  you  can  tell  me  where  I  can  find  the  janitor. 

Surely,  you  will  not  send  that  child  to  school  without  his  breakfast. 

The  boys  will,  probably,  wait  to  hear  which  school  won  the  ball 
game. 

Correct  Use  of  Negatives 

Modem  English  does  not  permit  the  use  of  the  double 
negative : 

Incorrect:  He  could  not  find  it  nowhere. 
Correct:      He  could  not  find  it  anywhere. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  97 

The  adverbs  only,  hardly,  scarcely,  are  themselves  negative 
in  idea;  they,  must  not  be  used  with  another  negative  thus 
making  a  double  negative: 

Incorrect:  I  am  not  allowed  to  go  to  parties  only  on  Fridays. 
Correct:      I  am  allowed  to  go  to  parties  only  on  Fridays. 

Incorrect:  It  was  so  dark  I  couldn't  hardly  see  the  road. 
Correct:      It  was  so  dark  I  could  hardly  see  the  road. 

Incorrect:  There  was  such  a  crowd  when  President  Wilson 
spoke,  there  wasn't  scarcely  standing  room. 

Correct:  There  was  such  a  crowd  when  President  Wilson 
spoke,  there  was  scarcely  standing  room. 


Responsives 

The  responsives  Yes  and  No  are  sometimes  classed  as 
adverbs,  but  strictly  speaking  they  are  not  parts-of-speech 
at  all.  They  are  words  used  as  substitutes  for  whole  sen- 
tences, limiting  the  statements  to  affirmation  or  denial: 

Did  you  see  the  automobile  race?         Yes  =  I  did  see  it. 

No  =  I  did  not  see  it. 

Conjunctive  Adverbs 

Some  adverbs  join  the  principal  clauses  of  a  compound 
sentence.  Care  must  be  taken  to  use  them  properly:  either 
a  conuna  and  a  coordinating  conjunction  or  a  semi-colon 
must  also  be  used  to  connect  the  clauses: 

The  men  were  in  a  hurry  to  go,  and  so  they  did  not  wait  for  you 
to  return. 

The  men  were  in  a  hurry  to  go;  so  they  did  not  wait  for  you  to 
return. 

Some  of  the  conjunctive  adverbs  are:  so,  thus,  also,  hence, 
consegumily ,   moreover,  still,   nevertheless,   therefore,  however. 


98  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Subordinating  Conjunctive  Adverbs 

When  adverbs  join  subordinate  clauses  to  the  words  in 
the  sentence  which  they  modify,  they  are  subordinating 
conjunctions;  as,  when,  where,  while,  since,  though,  although, 
as-if,  if,  than,  before,  until,  till,  unless,  for,  wherever,  whenever, 
whereas,  etc: 

I  shall  go  down  town  when  school  is  out. 
You  should  see  our  library  while  you  are  here. 
They  will  arrive  at  six  o'clock  if  the  train  is  on  time. 

Some  Special  Distinctions 
Some  and  Somewhat. 

Some  is  a  pronominal  adjective:  I  have  some  money. 
Somewhat  is  an  adverb :  I  am  somewhat  low  in  funds. 

Good  and  Well. 

Good  is  an  adjective:  He  does  good  work. 

Well  is  either  an  adverb  or  an  adjective:  He  works  well 
(adverb).    He  is  not  well  (adjective)  enough  to  work. 

Only  and  Alone. 

Alone  is  an  adjective:  *'Sinn  Fein,"  the  name  of  the  Irish 
party,  means  "Ourselves  alone  ^^  (adjective). 

Only  is  either  an  adverb  or  an  adjective:  The  car  stops 
at  this  crossing  only  (adjective).  No,  it  only  (adverb)  slows; 
it  doesn't  stop. 

Practice 

I.  Select  the  adjectives  and  adverbs  and  tell  how  they 
are  used: 

Ah,  there  you  are,  my  little  Master!  .  .  .  How  well  you  look  and 
how  pretty,  this  evening!  I  went  before  you  to  announce  your 
arrival.  AH  is  going  well.  We  shall  have  the  Blue  Bird  tonight, 
I  am  sure.  I  have  just  sent  the  Rabbit  to  beat  the  troop  in  order 
to  convoke  the  principal  animals  of  the  country.  You  can  hear 
them  already  among  the  foHage.  Listen!  They're  only  a  Uttle 
shy  and  dare  not  come  near. 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ADVERBS  99 

II.  Select  the  adverbs  and  tell  what  they  denote: 

1.  Come,  dear  children,  let  us  away; 

Down  and  away  below! 
Now  my  brothers  call  from  the  bay. 
Now  the  great  winds  shoreward  blow, 
Now  the  salt  tides  seaward  flow; 
Now  the  wild  white  horses  play. 
Champ  and  chafe  and  toss  in  the  spray. 

Children  dear,  let  us  away! 

This  way,  this  way! 

2.  Why  did  you  melt  your  waxen  man. 

Sister  Helen? 
Today  is  the  third  since  you  began. 
The  time  was  long,  yet  the  time  ran, 
Little  brother. 

3.  Under  the  wide  and  starry  sky. 
Dig  the  grave  and  let  me  lie. 
Glad  did  I  hve  and  gladly  die. 
And  I  laid  me  down  with  a  will. 

This  be  the  verse  you  grave  for  me, 
Here  he  lies  where  he  longed  to  be; 
Home  is  the  sailor,  home  from  sea. 
And  the  hunter  home  from  the  hill. 

4.  Jjet  the  blow  fall  soon  or  late. 
Let  what  will  be  o'er  me; 
Give  the  face  of  earth  around. 

And  the  road  before  me. 
Wealth  I  ask  not,  hope  nor  love. 
Nor  a  friend  to  know  me; 
All  I  seek  the  heaven  above 
And  the  road  below  me. 

III.  In  the  following  sentences  choose  the  correct  form — 
adjective  or  adverb — and  give  the  reason  for  your  choice : 

1.  Handle  the  test  tube  {careful,  carefully). 

2.  He  looks  very  {bad,  badly). 

3.  School  —  Drive  {slow,  slowly). 

4.  He  acted  very  {different,  differently)  from  what  I  expected. 


100  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

5.  (Sure,  surely)  I  will  go. 

6.  Walk  {quick,  quickly)  and  you  will  be  in  time. 

IV.  Choose  between  the  comparatives  and  superlatives 
in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Which  is  the  (larger,  largest)  San  Francisco,  or  New  Orleans? 

2.  The  (older,  oldest)  of  the  two  sisters  is  married. 

3.  Which  do  you  Uke  (better,  best)  grapes  or  peaches? 

4.  Which  do  you  find  (easier,  easiest),  Enghsh  or  Latin? 

5.  John  seems  to  have  (the  best  judgment  of  any,  better  judg- 
ment than  any)  boy  in  school. 

V.  Fill  in  blanks  with  either  some  or  somewhat  and  give 
reason  for  the  choice: 

1.  My  mother  is better  this  morning;  she  has  taken 

breakfast. 

2.  There  is doubt  about  his  coming  back  to  school  this  term, 

though  he  is surer  of  coming  than  he  was. 

VI.  Fill  in  blanks  with  either  good  or  well  and  give  resaon 
for  choice: 

Is  your  sick  friend  getting ? 

His  health  isn't  very but  for  one  who  has  been  so  ill  he  is 

progressing  very . 

VII.  In  the  following  sentences  distinguish  the  different 
uses  of  alone  and  of  only,  whether  adjective  or  adverb: 

1.  Only  North-Loop  cars  stop  at  this  crossing. 

2.  They  stop  only  to  let  off  passengers. 

3.  He  doesn't  play  base-ball;  he  only  plays  foot-ball. 

4.  He  only  won  two  games  of  the  set. 

5.  He  wasn't  really  playing;  he  only  played  at  playing. 

6.  Only  members  (members  alone)  have  the  right  to  vote. 

7.  The  weather  wasn't  disagreeable;  it  was  only  very  warm. 

8.  He  alone  steps  from  the  van  of  the  freemen. 
He  al^ne  sinks  to  the  rear  and  the  slaves. 

VIII.  Lring  into  class  seven  sentences,  each  successively 
containing  one  of  the  several  adjectives  and  adverbs  following: 

each  latest  pretty 

every  last  prettily 


ADJECTIVES  AND  ^bVERBS  I 


..lOU 


Adverbs 


Kind 


Form 


Use 


Outline  Summary 
'  1.  Simple 

2.  Conjunctive 

3.  Interrogative 

f  1.  Positive 

2.  Comparative 

3.  Superlative 


hence,  whence, 
where,  ivhen, 
because,  if. 


1.  To  modify 


verbs 

adjectives 

adverbs 


2.  To  join  clauses. 


CHAPTER  V 

Prepositions 

Note  the  italicized  words  in  the  following  passage. 

By  afternoon  we  had  come  to  the  desert  and  could  see  the  un- 
broken level  ahead-of  us.  Into  it  we  went  without  realizing  what 
fate  had  in  store  for  us.  From  that  moment  our  journey  became  a 
chapter  of  accidents.  At-once  our  motor  began  to  ''skip,"  and 
within  an  hour  it  had  "gone  dead"  on  our  hands.  Luckily  another 
car  drew  up  along-side-of  ours,  and  the  motorist  kindly  towed  us 
the  rest  of  the  way  through  the  sandy  waste,  by-means-of  a  rope  he 
had  brought  with  him. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  with  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, always  in  the  objective  case,  to  make  a  phrase 
which  limits  some  other  word. 

While  the  preposition  regularly  consists  of  one  word, 
certain  groups  of  related  words,  such  as  in-place  of,  instead- 
of,  along-with,  etc.,  are  idiomatically  used  as  prepositions. 

A  preposition  is  regularly  followed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun. 
Sometimes,  however,  a  preposition  may  idiomatically  be 
followed : 

By  an  adjective: 

She  was  lovely  in  a  dress  of  blue. 

By  an  adverb: 

Come  at  once. 

By  another  preposition: 

It  fell  from  above. 

By  a  phrase: 

I  have  had  replies  from  about  thirty  of  my  invitations. 
Did  you  hear  about  that  man's  falling  from  the  rooff 

102 


PREPOSITIONS  103 

However,  in  all  these  cases  the  words  following  the  preposi- 
tions either  imply  nouns  or  have  the  force  of  nouns. 

A  dress  of-blue  =  A  dress  of  blue  cloth. 
At-once  =  At  this  instant. 
From-above  =  From  above  our  heads. 
''About   thirty,   etc.,"    and    ''That   man's    falling"    are 
noun-phrases  (see  Chapter  VIII). 

Use  of  Prepositions 

A  preposition  may  be  used  to  relate  its  object: 
To  a  noun: 

He  wore  a  ring  of-gold. 
To  a  pronoun: 

He  of-the-lion-heart  led  the  onset. 
To  an  adjective: 

Radiant  with  light,  the  house  welcomed  us. 
To  an  adverb: 

Exactly  to  the  minute  the  train  started. 

Practice 

Select  the  prepositions  in  the  following  and  explain  their 
objects: 

1.  I  would  sometimes  lie  down,  and  let  five  or  six  of  them  dance 
on  my  hand;  and  at  last  the  boys  and  girls  would  venture  to  come 
and  play  at  hide-and-seek  in  my  hair.  I  had  now  made  a  good 
progress  in  understanding  and  speaking  their  language. 

2.  The  Emperor  had  a  mind,  one  day,  to  entertain  me  with 
several  of  the  country  shows.  I  was  diverted  with  none  so  much 
as  that  of  the  rope-dancers,  performed  upon  a  slender  white  thread 
extending  about  two  feet  and  twelve  inches  from  the  ground,  upon 
which  I  shall  desire  Uberty  with  the  reader's  patience  to  enlarge  a 
little. 


104  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

3.  The  hawthorn  bush,  with  seats  beneath  the  shade, 
For  talking  age  or  whispering  lovers  made! 

4.  Thanks,  my  Lord,  for  your  venison,  for  finer  or  fatter 
Never  ranged  in  a  forest,  or  smoked  in  a  platter; 

So  I  cut  it,  and  sent  it  to  Reynolds  undrest. 

To  paint  it  or  eat  it,  just  as  he  liked  best. 

Of  the  neck  and  the  breast  I  had  next  to  dispose; 

'Twas  a  neck  and  a  breast  might  rival  Monroe's; 

But  in  parting  with  these  I  was  puzzled  again, 

With  the  how,  and  the  who,  and  the  where,  and  the  when. 

5.  Piping  down  the  valleys  wild. 
Piping  songs  of  pleasant  glee, 
On  a  cloud  I  saw  a  child. 
And  he,  laughing,  said  to  me: 
"Pipe  a  song  about  a  lamb," 
So  I  piped  with  merry  cheer. 
"Piper,  pipe  that  song  again," 
So  I  piped:  he  wept  to  hear. 

6.  The  year's  at  the  spring 
And  day's  at  the  morn; 
Morning's  at  seven; 

The  hillside's  dew-pearled; 
The  lark's  on  the  wing; 
The  snail's  on  the  thorn; 
God's  in  his  Heaven — 
All's  right  with  the  world! 

Correct  Use  of  Prepositions 

Among,  between : 

Use  among  when  you  wish  to  refer  to  more  than  two  per- 
sons or  things,  or  groups  of  persons  or  things. 
Use  between  when  you  wish  to  refer  to  two  only: 

Though  there  may  be  differences  between  our  two  schools  we 
three  can  settle  them  among  us. 

By,  with: 

Use  by  when  you  wish  to  denote  the  doer  of  an  action: 

The  bird  was  shot  by  my  brother. 


PREPOSITIONS  105 

Use  mth  generally  when  you  wish  to  denote  the  instru- 
ment with  which  the  action  was  performed: 
He  shot  it  with  a  rifle. 

BesidS)  Besides: 

Use  beside  when  you  mean  by  the  side  of. 
Use  besides  when  you  mean  in  addition  to; 

May  I  sit  beside  you? 

Is  any  one  besides  your  brother  coming? 

In,  into : 

Use  in  when  you  wish  to  denote  presence  inside  of,  or 
within. 

Use  into  when  you  wish  to  denote  passing  from  without 
to  the  inside  of: 

You  can  walk  about  in  a  room,  but  you  will  first  have  to  go 
into  the  room. 

In,  on: 

In  is  more  definite  than  on. 
On  denotes  location  only. 

Some  words  require  special  prepositions: 

Agree  with  a  person,  or  an  opinion. 

Agree  to  a  statement,  arrangement,  proposal,  plan,  etc. 

Comply  with  a  request,  desire,  etc. 

Confide  in  a  friend  (trust  in  a  friend) . 

Confide  a  secret  to. 

Correspond  to  or  with  sl  thing. 

Correspond  (exchange  letters)  with  a  person. 

Make  remarks  derogatory  to. 

Differ /rom  a  person  or  thing  (be  different). 

Differ  vrith  a  person,  an  opinion  (disagree  with). 

Be  disappointed  in  what  we  have. 

Be  disappointed  of  what  we  cannot  get. 


106  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Part  from  or  with. 

Have  a  taste  of  or  for  food. 

Have  a  taste  for  sports. 

Be  reconciled  to  or  with. 

Show  syrapathy  with  or  for  a  person. 

Practice 

I.  Choose    the    correct    prepositions    for    the    following 
sentences: 

1.  She  confided  in  (to)  me  when  she  was  in  trouble. 

2.  Robert  often  differs  from  (with)  me  when  we  talk  politics. 

3.  Mother  is  in  (at)  New  Orleans,  stopping  at  (in)  the  St.  Charles 
Hotel. 

4.  I  was  disappointed  in  (of)  my  visit  owing  to  Mother's  illness. 

II.  Fill  each  blank  with  its  proper  preposition: 

1.  My  brother  is  living Boston. 

2.  whom  did  you  receive  that  beautiful  cabinet? 

3.  whom  are  you  stopping? 

4.  whose  house  will  you  stop? 

5.  whom  can  I  depend  for  help? 

6.  whom  were  you  told  that  I  would  not  sing? 

7.  They  divided  the  apple the  three  children. 

8.  They  put  the  flag the  roof  of  the  house. 

9.  The  man  ran the  house. 

10.  We  clamber  out the  roof  of  the  veranda. 

11.  The  men  are  putting  the  coal the  cellar. 

12.  He  died smallpox. 

13.  Did  you  say  the  man  was  killed his  hired  man? 

14.  That  is  the  car which  the  race  was  won. 

15.  He  let  his  bucket  fall the  well. 

16.  There  is  need great  patience. 

17.  He  is  different his  brother  in  that  he  is  incKned  to  rush 

speculations. 


18.  This  is  different what  you  led  me  to  expect. 

19.  The  other  house  was  palatial  compared this. 

20.  He  was  overcome laughter. 

21.  You  must  conform the  rules  of  the  Club. 


PREPOSITIONS  107 

22.  Fondness drink  led  to  his  ruin. 

23.  The  president  could  not  agree his  cabinet,  and  he  was 

not  always  ready  to  agree their  proposals. 

24.  The  two  companies  were  merged one. 

25.  She  often  drove town her  husband. 

26.  His  will  is  apt  to  make  trouble the  two  families. 

27.  Hildredth,  divide  the  money the  three  children. 

III.  Show   which    prepositions    are   not    needed    in    the 
following  sentences: 

1.  No  one  could  help  from  hking  Jack,  he  is  so  jolly. 

2.  Can  you  push  the  boat  off  of  that  rock? 

3.  At  about  what  time  will  the  game  begin? 

4.  After  having  walked  a  mile,  I  came  in  sight  of  the  house. 

5.  Our  house  is  near  to  the  road. 

6.  We  went  on  to  the  boat  and  the  captain  took  us  up  on  to  the 
upper  deck. 

7.  Hang  the  flag  out  of  the  window. 

8.  My  httle  brother  fell  off  of  his  pony. 

9.  Let  us  build  a  wall  of  fifty  feet  in  length. 

10.  Mary  will  take  those  books  off  from  the  table,  if  you  wish 
her  to  do  so. 

11.  As  I  stood  pondering  upon  which  road  to  take,  my  father 
drove  along. 

12.  From  thence  we  rode  to  Santa  Barbara. 

IV.  Select  prepositions  and  denote  the  relation  between 
the  object  and  the  word  modified: 

1.  Flower  in  the  crannied  wall, 

I  pluck  you  out  of  the  crannies, 
I  hold  you  here,  root  and  all,  in  my  hand. 
Little  flower — but  if  I  could  understand 
What  you  are,  root  and  all,  and  all  in  all, 
I  should  know  what  God  and  man  is. 

2.  The  moon  was  afloat 
Like  a  golden  boat 

On  the  sea-blue  depths  of  the  sky, 

When  the  miller  of  Dee 

With  his  children  three 

On  his  fat,  red  horse  rode  by. 


108  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

3.  In  Xanadu  did  Kubla  Khan 

A  stately  pleasure-dome  decree 
Where  Alph,  the  sacred  river,  ran 
Through  caverns  measureless  to  man 
Down  to  a  sunless  sea. 

4.  The  People  of  the  Eastern  Ice,  they  are  melting  like  the  snow, 
They  beg  for  coffee  and  sugar;  they  go  where  the  white  men  go. 
The  People  of  the  Western  Ice,  they  learn  to  steal  and  fight; 
They  sell  their  furs  to  the  trading-post;  they  sell  their  souls  to 

the  white. 
The  People  of  the  Southern  Ice,  they  trade  with  the  whaler's 

crew; 
Their  women  have  many  ribbons,  but  their  tents  are  torn  and 

few. 
But  the  People  of  the  Eldes  Ice,  beyond  the  white  man's  ken — 
Their  spears  are  made  of  the  narwhal-horn,  and  they  are  the 

last  of  the  Men. 

5.  Man  goes  to  man!    Cry  the  challenge  through  the  Jungle! 
He  that  was  our  Brother  goes  away. 

Hear,  now,  and  judge,  O  ye  People  of  the  Jungle, — 
Answer,  who  shall  turn  him — who  shall  stay? 

Man  goes  to  man!    He  is  weeping  in  the  Jungle! 
He  that  was  our  Brother  sorrows  sore! 
Man  goes  to  man!    (Oh,  we  loved  him  in  the  Jungle!) 
To  the  Man-Trail  where  we  may  not  follow  more. 

6.  Our  ship  was  about  120  tons  burthen;  carried  six  guns  and 
fourteen  men,  besides  the  master,  his  boy,  and  myself.  We  had 
on  board  no  large  cargo  of  goods,  except  of  such  toys  as  were  fit  for 
our  trade  with  the  negroes, — such  as  beads,  bits  of  glass,  shells, 
and  odd  trifles,  especially  little  looking-glasses,  knives,  scissors, 
hatchets  and  the  like. 

The  wave  that  came  upon  me  again,  buried  me  at  once  twenty 
or  thirty  feet  deep  in  its  own  body,  and  I  could  feel  myself  carried 
with  a  mighty  force  and  swiftness  towards  the  shore  a  very  great 
way;  but  I  held  my  breath,  and  assisted  myself  to  swim  still  forward 
with  all  my  might. 

I  was  now  landed,  and  safe  on  shore,  and  began  to  look  up  and 
thank  God  that  my  life  was  saved  in  a  case  wherein  there  was 
some  minutes  before  scarce  any  room  to  hope. 


PREPOSITIONS  109 


7.  A  late  lark  twitters  from  the  quiet  skies; 
And  from  the  west, 
Where  the  sun,  his  day's  work  ended, 
Lingers  as  in  content. 
There  falls  on  the  old,  gray  city 
An  influence  luminous  and  serene, 
A  shining  peace. 

The  smoke  ascends 

In  a  rosy-and-golden  haze.    The  spires 

Shine,  and  are  changed.    In  the  valley 

Shadows  rise.    The  lark  sings  on.    The  sun 

Closing  his  benediction. 

Sinks,  and  the  darkening  air, 

Thrills  with  a  sense  of  the  triumphing  night — 

Night,  with  her  train  of  stars 

And  her  great  gift  of  sleep. 

So  be  my  passing! 

My  task  accomplished  and  the  long  day  done, 

My  wages  taken,  and  in  my  heart 

Some  late  lark  singing. 

Let  me  be  gathered  to  the  quiet  west, 

The  Sundown  splendid  and  serene, 

Death. 


no 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


Prepositions 


Kind 


Outline  Summary 

1.  Simple:  to,  for,  on,  etc. 

2.  Compound:   in-place-of,    beside-of,   over- 

and-above,  etc. 


Form  \   Make  no  change  in  form. 

I  To  connect  noims  and  pronouns  to  other 
words,  so  as  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween the  connected  words. 


CHAPTER  VI 

Interjections 

The  interjections,  or  exclamatory  words  and  phrases, 
have  been  italicized  in  the  following  sentences: 

What,  the  man  is  not  really  your  brother!  No,  indeed!  He  is 
only  my  step-brother.  Look!  You  can  see  there  is  no  family  re- 
semblance. 

An  interjection  is  a  word  of  exclamation,  used  either 
independently  or  to  modify  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 

In  the  first  sentence  the  interjection,  what,  changes  the 
sentence  from  an  ordinary  declaration  to  an  exclamatory 
question,  but  it  modifies  no  one  part.  The  imperative 
interjection,  look,  stands  by  itself. 

Interjections  make  no  change  in  form  or  use. 

The  most  common  are: 

0!  Oh!  Ah!  Alas!  Lo!  Amen!  Hurrah! 

Other  parts-of-speech  become  interjections  when  used  in 
an  exclamatory  sense: 

Never!  Indeed!  What! 

The  imperative  may  be  an  interjection: 

Look!  Stand!  Hurry!  Stop! 

Groups  of  words  having  an  exclamatory  sense  may  form 
phrase  interjections: 

Great-Heavens!  By-Jove!  One-moment!  Thank-Heavens! 


Ill 


CHAPTER  VII 

Conjunctions 

Observe  the  relations  among  the  parts  of  sentences,  in 
the  three  following  groups: 

Father  and  son  look  and  speak  alike. 
John  as-well-as  Henry  resembles  his  father. 
Neither  John  nor  Henry  resembles  his  father. 

To  laugh  and  to  grow  fat  is  about  all  some  men  live  for. 
Either  from  weakness  or  from  cowardice  he  would  not  fight. 
Whether  in  the  body  or  out  of  the  body,  I  know  not. 

When  I  am  twenty-one  years  old  and  (when  I  am  made)  a  voter 
I  shall  decide  which  party  to  join. 

As-far-as  we  could  judge  the  man's  story  was  true. 

Because  you  have  been  frank  with  me  I  am  going  to  tell  you 
the  whole  truth. 

If  you  are  exacting  or  irritable  you  will  lose  friends. 

Though  I  do  not  altogether  like  the  man  yet  I  voted  for  him. 

I  am  going  to  Los  Angeles  but  I  shall  not  visit  San  Francisco. 

Conjunctions  are  words  used  to  join  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses,  and  to  show  their  mutual  relations. 

Note: — As  word-connectives  conjunctions  differ  from 
prepositions:  (1)  prepositions  re^a^e  nouns,  pronouns,  or 
equivalents,  to  words  of  nearly  every  sort;  conjunctions 
can  only  join  words  of  the  same  sort ;  (2)  prepositions 
with  their  nouns,  pronouns,  or  equivalents  make  gram- 
matical phrases  (see  page  129) ;  conjunctives  never. 
In  the  sentence: — John  is  different  from  (preposition) 
James;  he  is  manlier  than  (conjunction)  James,  the  words 
from-James  form  a  grammatical  phrase,  the  words  than- 
112 


CONJUNCTIONS 


113 


James  do  not,  for  than  belongs  as  much  to  the  word  John 
as  to  the  word  James.     It  really  joins  the  two  sen- 
tences:— ^John-is-manlier  tha?i  James-is-manly. 
Kinds 

Conjunctions  are  of  two  general  kinds: 

1.  Coordinating  conjunctions  are  those  which  join  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  of  equal  rank.  The  chief  coordinating 
conjunctions   are: 

and,  accordingly,  also,  again,  besides,  consequently,  further- 
more, likewise,  moreover,  so; 

hut,  however,  nevertheless,  nor,  still,  yet. 

The  latter  group  are  sometimes  called  disjunctives. 

2.  Subordinating  conjunctions  are  those  which  join 
clauses  of  unequal  rank. 

The  chief  subordinating  conjunctions  may  be  grouped 
into  six  classes,  according  to  their  uses: 


Causjj    PvRfQgp 

gONDITION 

Concession  Comparison  Time 

Result 

as           to 

if 

albeit             as 

after 

because  that 

unless 

although        than 

as 

(=  if  not) 

nevertheless 

consequently 

whenever 

notwithstanding 

before 

for          lest 

(=  that  ] 

QOt). 

though           whereas 

since 

hence 

wherever 

while              while 

until 

since 

whether 

yet 

unto 

therefore 

when 

whereas 

whence 

whenever 

while 

Note: — Some    subordinating     conjunctions    have    more 
than  one  kind  of  use: 

As  (time)  I  was  passing  a  haberdasher's  shop  I  saw  displayed  in 
the  front  window  an  irresistible  necktie,  and  as  (cause)  I  happened 


114  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

to  have  enough  money  in  my  pocket  I  resolved  to  buy  it.  While 
(concession)  I  was  not  in  pressing  need  of  a  new  necktie  still  I  make 
it  my  rule  to  buy  such  things  while  (time)  they  can  be  had. 

Note: — Some  conjunctions  are  either  coordinating  or  sub- 
ordinating: 

Rain  began  to  drizzle;  so  (and  therefore)  we  raised  our  umbrellas 
(coordinating). 

It  doesn't  matter  when  you  come  so  (if  only)  you  come  soon 
(subordinating). 

I  was  walking  aimlessly  along  the  street  lohen  (and  then)  a  familiar 
voice  saluted  me  (coordinating). 

Be  sure  you  bring  your  knitting  with  you  when  (at  the  time)  you 
come  (subordinating). 

He  is  a  shrewd  politician;  yet  (but)  he  is  not  a  great  pohtical 
leader  (coordinating). 
Though  He  slay  me  yet  (still)  will  I  trust  Him  (subordinating). 


Correlative  Conjunctions 

Correlative  conjunctions  are  related  in  pairs  which  to- 
gether join  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.  The  principal 
ones   are: 

either — or  neither — nor 

as-well — as  not  so — as 

as — as  not — but  also 

as — so  not  only  not — not  even 

both — and 

now — now 

though — yet 

whether — or 

Either  George  or  Jack  will  gladly  do  the  errand  for  you. 
Neither  Henry  nor  James  is  so  good  a  player  as  Tom  used  to  be. 


CONJUNCTIONS  115 


Phrase  Conjunctions 

When  groups  of  related  words  have  the  use  of  conjunctions 
they  are  called  phrase-conjunctions. 

as-far-as  in-spite-of 

as-good-as  on-the-contrary 

as-long-as  on-the-one-hand 

as-soon-as  on-the-other-hand 

as-well-as  so-as 

as-if  sothat 

in-case-that  to-begin-with 

inasmuch-as  that-not 
in-order-that 

Adverbs  and  Conjunctions. 

Many   adverbs  and   adverbial   expressions  are   used   as 
conjunctions: 

As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west  so  far  hath  He  removed  our 
transgressions  from  us  (adverbial  uses). 
As  far  as  pluck  is  concerned  he  has  plenty  (conjunction). 

He  took  the  instructions  to  be  a  hoax  and  acted  accordingly. 
He  was  offended  at  the  man's  rudeness;  accordingly  (conjunction) 
he  would  not  recognize  him. 

However  (adverb)  you  look  at  it,  you  must  admit  the  fact. 
He  is  going  to  make  a  muddle  of  his  career;  however   (conjunc- 
tion) he  is  of  age  and  must  manage  his  own  affairs. 


Practice 

I.  Select  conjunctions,  tell  their  kind,  what  they  connect, 
and  the  meaning  they  express: 

1.  Mary  or  David  will  take  the  message  for  you. 

2.  I  do  not  know  whether  the  boy  asked  for  Jack  or  for  Gill. 

3.  They  will  either  ride  over  in  their  machine,  or  they  will 
come  by  train. 


116  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

4.  The  baby  will  not  sing  to  anyone  but  her  mother. 

5.  She  would  not  sing  any  song  but  that. 

6.  I  intend  to  go,  but  I  intend  to  return. 

7.  I  cannot  go  until  he  comes. 

8.  Tom  will  take  us  for  a  ride  after  he  has  finished  that  game 
of  tennis. 

9.  Harry,  you  may  as  well  finish  that  story  since  you  are  so 
interested  in  it. 

10.  As  I  was  coming  through  the  orchard  I  heard  a  thrush  singing. 

11.  I  hope  that  as  long  as  I  live  I  may  not  pass  such  another  night. 

12.  As  soon  as  you  have  finished  your  letter,  will  you  go  for  a 
walk  with  me? 

13.  Did  you  feed  the  chickens  before  you  left  home? 

14.  I  did  not  finish  the  story  because  it  is  too  long. 

15.  I  will  give  you  a  rose  if  you  will  wait  until  I  can  pick  it. 

16.  Mother  says  I  may  not  go  unless  you  will  go  with  me. 

17.  She  lives  either  in  that  house  or  in  the  next  one. 

18.  The  purse  was  neither  in  the  drawer  nor  on  the  table. 

19.  It  is  easy  both  to  judge  and  to  condemn. 

20.  Not  only  the  mother  but  also  the  baby  is  very  ill. 

21.  He  has  courage  as  well  as  patience. 

22.  I  can  manage  the  car  as  well  as  you  can. 

23.  He  is  taller  than  James. 

II.  Select  all  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  excerpts, 
tell  what  they  show  and  classify  them  as  to  meaning: 

1.  Sweet  son,  for  there  be  many  who  deem  him  not; 
Or  will  not  deem  him,  wholly  proven  King — 
Albeit  in  mine  own  heart  I  knew  him  king 
When  I  was  frequent  with  him  in  my  youth. 

2.  And  there  were  cries  and  clashings  in  the  nest. 
That  sent  him  from  his  senses. 

3.  Still  we  say  as  we  go: — 
Strange  to  think  by  the  way. 
Whatever  there  is  to  know. 
That  shall  we  know  some  day. 

4.  But  no  word  comes  from  the  dead: 
Whether  at  all  they  be. 

Or  whether  as  bond  or  free, 

Or  by  what  spell  they  have  sped. 


CONJUNCTIONS  117 

5.  You  may  call  a  jay  a  bird.  Well,  so  he  is,  because  he  has 
feathers  on  him;  otherwise  he  is  just  as  human  as  you  are. 

Yes,  Sir;  a  jay  is  everything  that  a  man  is.  A  jay  can  laugh,  a 
jay  can  gossip,  a  jay  can  feel  ashamed,  just  as  well  as  you  do — 
maybe  better.  And  there  is  another  thing:  in  good,  clean,  out-and- 
out  scolding,  a  blue  jay  can  beat  anything  alive. 

6.  Bo-bo  was  in  the  utmost  consternation,  as  you  may  think, 
not  so  much  for  the  sake  of  the  tenement,  which  his  father  and  he 
could  easily  build  up  again  with  a  few  dry  branches,  and  the  labor 
of  an  hour  or  two,  at  any  time,  as  for  the  loss  of  the  pigs. 

' '  0  father,  the  pig,  the  pig !  Do  come  and  taste  how  nice  the  burnt 
pig  eats." 

The  ears  of  Ho-ti  tingled  with  horror.  He  cursed  his  son,  and  he 
cursed  himself  that  ever  he  should  beget  a  son  that  could  eat  burnt 

pig- 

7.  If  you  can  talk  with  crowds  and  keep  j^our  virtue, 

Or  walk  with  Kings — nor  lose  the  common  touch, 
If  neither  foes  nor  loving  friends  can  hurt  you, 

If  all  men  count  with  you,  but  none  too  much; 
If  you  can  fill  the  unforgiving  minute 

With  sixty  seconds'  worth  of  distance  run, 
Yours  is  the  Earth  and  everything  that's  in  it. 

And — which  is  more — you'll  be  a  man,  my  son! 

Correct  Use  of  Conjunctions 

Be  careful  not  to  omit  conjunctions  necessary  to  the 
sense: 

Incorrect:  A  Pierce  Arrow  is  as  good  if  not  better  than  a 
Packard. 
Correct:      A  Pierce  Arrow  is  as  good  as  a  Packard  if  not  better. 

Be  careful  to  place  each  term  of  the  correlative  so  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  words  and  ideas  they  are 
intended  to  connect: 

Incorrect:  Father  gave  me  not  only  the  Electric  but  taught  me 
how  to  run  it  also. 

Correct:  Father  not  only  gave  me  the  Electric,  but  he  also 
taught  me  how  to  run  it. 


118  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Except  has  sometimes  been  used  as  a  conjunction,  but 
the  best  present  usage  allows  except  as  a  preposition  only; 
unless  is  the  proper  substitute: 

That  which  thou  sowest  cannot  be  quickened  except  it  die. 

Without  is  another  word  sometimes  used  as  a  conjunction 
when  unless  would  more  nearly  give  the  meaning: 

I  will  not  give  it  to  you  without  you  promise  to  take  care  of  it. 
Better  form:  I  will  not  give  it  to  you  unless  you  promise  to 
take  care  of  it. 

Like  is  never  a  conjunction,  although  often  incorrectly 
used  instead  of  as,  or  as-if: 

Correct:  I  did  that  example  as  you  did  it  (not,  like  you  did  it). 
Correct:  It  looks  as-if  it  would  snow  (not,  like  it  would). 

Practice 

I.  Fill  in  blanks  with  the  proper  word,  like,  as,  or  as-if: 

1.  She  likes  to  study  mathematics  — —  I  like  to  study  English. 

2.  Father  says  that  Tom  looks Mother  did  when  she  was 

young. 

3.  She  looks she  were  ill. 

4.  It  looks it  might  rain  before  morning. 

5.  Don't  you  wish  you  could  sing he  can? 

II.  Write  Sentences  showing  careful  discrimination  in 
the  use  of  the  following  connectives,  telling  in  every  case 
what  the  connective  shows: 

Yet,  still,  but,  and,  while,  so,  ivhereas,  however,  since,  because^ 
therefore,  hence,  for,  nevertheless,  as  far  as,  not  only — but  also. 


CONJUNCTIONS 


119 


Outline  Summary 


Kind 


Conjunctions 


Use 


(a)  Simple:  both,  and,  or, 
than,  etc. 

1.  Coordinating 

(b)  Correl- 
ative 

either — or 
neither — nor 
both— and 
as  well  as 
not — only 
but — also 

(  if,  so,  yet,  after, 

,  .  c.-      1    1  unless,  until,  be- 
(a)  Simple  j^^^^;^,^'_ 

while,  where,  etc. 

2.  Subordi- 
nating 

(b)  Phrase- 
conjunc- 
tions 

as  far  as 
as  good  as 
as  soon  as 
as  if 

in  order  that 
as  though 
so  that 

Form  \  Do  not  change  their  form 
1.  Coordinating 


Used  to  connect  word.^, 
phrases  or  clauses  of  equal 
rank. 


2.  Subordi- 
nating 


f  Used  to  connect  subordi- 
nate clauses  with  independ- 
ent clauses 


CHAPTER  VIII 

The  Sentence 

As  we  have  seen,  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  complete 
thought  is  called  a  sentence.  We  are  now  going  to  study 
some  of  the  ways  in  which  a  sentence  may  express  a  com- 
plete thought. 

The  two  essential  parts  of  a  sentence  are  the  subject 
and  the  predicate. 

The  subject  names  the  performer  of  the  action  asserted 
by  the  intransitive  or  the  transitive  verb: 

John  struck  the  ball. 

Th3  hall  was  struck  by  John. 

The  predicate  is  the  most  vital  part  of  the  sentence  be- 
cause it  asserts  the  thought  or  action  of  the  sentence. 

We  might  express  a  complete  thought  by  means  of  the 
verb  alone,  as — ''March!"  "Go!"  etc.,  the  subject  being 
unexpressed   although   understood. 

But  the  predicate  itself  very  often  needs  something  be- 
sides the  verb  to  complete  its  meaning.  Then  a  complete- 
ment  or  complement  becomes  one  of  the  essential  parts  of 
the   sentence. 

The  sentence  is  expanded  and  limited  by  modifying  words 
and  phrases  and  clauses:  and  the  various  parts  are  linked 
and  related  by  connectives.  These  modifying  elements 
are  not  the  essential  parts  of  the  sentence;  consequently, 
they  do  not  rank  in  importance  with  the  subject,  or  the 
predicate. 


120 


THE  SENTENCE  121 

Forms  of  Sentences 

Sentences  are  classified  as  to  their  forms  into:  (1)  simple 
sentences,  (2)  complex  sentences,  (3)  compound  sentences. 
All  three  are  to  be  found  in  the  following  brief  letter: 

Dear   John, 

(1)  The  game  comes  off  tomorrow.  (2)  If  you  wish 
to  see  it  you  must  come  tonight.  (3)  Take  the  limited,  and 
be  sure  to  bring  your  sister. 

A  sentence  that  contains  hut  one  complete  statement^ 
command^  or  question  is  called  a  simple  sentence. 
A  sentence  that  contains  one  complete  statement,  com- 
mand, or  question,  and  one  or  more  dependent  state- 
ments, commands,  or  questions,  is  called  a  complex 
sentence. 

A  sentence  thai  contains  two  or  more  complete  state- 
ments, commands,  or  questions,  is  called  a  compound 
sentence. 

Simple  Sentences 

A  simple  sentence  may  contain: 
more  than  one  subject; 

Harry  and  Jack  are  both  good  fielders. 

more  than  one  verb; 

Harry  and  Jack  both  field  and  hat  well. 

more  than  one  complement; 

The  boys  are  gathering  wood  and  hrush. 

a  compound  subject,  a  compound  verb,   a  compound 
complement,  and  modifying  phrases. 

Harry  and  Jack  both  cut  and  hauled  wood  and  hrush  for  the  camp- 
fire,  this  evening. 


122  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Compound  Sentences 

Sentences  may  be  compound  in  either  or  both  of  two 
ways: 

1.  conjunctively; 

He  is  a  good  fellow,  and  I  like  him. 

2.  disjunctively; 

He  may  be  a  good  fellow  but  I  do  not  like  him. 

3.  both; 

He  is  a  good  fellow  and  he  is  very  popular,  yet  I  do  not  like  him. 
He  is  a  good  fellow  and  I  hke  h^d  do  not  greatly  admire  him. 

Complex  Sentences 

Complex  sentences  are  of  three  orders: 

1.  Those  containing  one  independent  and  at  least  one 
dependent  statement: 

(a)  If  you  disobey  me  (b)  I  shall  certainly  punish  you. 

2.  Those  containing  at  least  two  independent  and  at  least 
one  dependent  statement,  the  compound-complex  sentence : 

(a)  I  forbid  you  to  go  and  (a)  I  shall  certainly  punish  you  (b)  if 
you  disobey  me. 

3.  Those  containing  at  least  one  independent  and  at  least 
two  correlative  dependent  statements;  the  complex-com- 
pound : 

(a)  When  you  are  old  and  grey  and  full  of  sleep, 

(a)  And  sitting  by  the  fire,  (b)  take  down  this  book. 

Complex-compound  sentences  may  also  contain  sub- 
dependent  clauses: 

(a)  We  entered  this  war  (b)  because  violations  of  right  had 
occurred  (c)  which  touched  us  to  the  quick  (c)  and  made  the  life 
of  our  people  impossible  (d)  unless  they  were  corrected  (d)  and  the 
world  secured,  once  for  all,  against  their  recurrence. 


THE  SENTENCE  123 

Care  in  Punctuating  Sentences 

Aeroplanes  have  at  last  flown  across  the  ocean,  they  will  soon 
be  carrying  passengers. 

Here  we  have  two  principal  clauses  joined  by  a  comma, 
as  one  sentence. 

Corrected, — as,  two  simple  sentences: 

Aeroplanes  have  at  last  flown  across  the  ocean. 
They  will  soon  be  carrying  passengers. 

Or,  corrected  as  compound  sentences  with  a  conama  and 
coordinating  conjunction  connecting  the  two  clauses: 

Aeroplanes  have  at  last  crossed  the  ocean,  and  they  will  soon  be 
carrying  passengers. 

Or  the  comma  and  conjunction  omitted  and  the  semi- 
colon substituted: 

Aeroplanes  have  at  last  crossed  the  ocean;  they  will  soon  be 
carrying  passengers. 

Avoid : 

(1)  The  mistake  of  writing  a  subordinate  clause  as  a 
sentence: 

Wrong:  I  bought  a  new  motor  "  bike."  Which  I  have  been  needing 
for  sometime. 

Right:  I  bought  a  new  motor  "bike"  which  I  have  needed  for 
some  time. 

(2)  The  mistake  of  writing  a  phrase  as  a  sentence: 

Wrong :  Father  said  he  would  buy  me  a  new  motor  boat.  Perhaps 
for  my  birthday  in  April. 

Right:  Father  said  he  would  buy  me  a  new  motor  boat,  perhaps 
for  my  birthday  in  April. 

Practice 
Correct  the  mistakes  in  the  following  sentences,  and  ex- 
plain each  mistake: 

1.  You  will  find  the  fishing  fine  in  that  river  it  is  a  shady  spot. 

2.  I  didn't  know  you  Uved  there,  when  did  you  move? 


124  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

3.  My  teacher  liked  the  song,  she  had  me  sing  it  three  times. 

4.  Are  you  to  sing  or  to  play  I  don't  remember  which  you  chose. 

5.  One  half  the  apples  are  here  the  others  are  in  the  cellar. 

6.  Flying  is  a  dangerous  sport.    Especially  in  cloudy  weather. 

7.  I  want  to  express  my  sympathy  I  heard  of  your  accident  last 
night. 

8.  The  butterfly  is  a  most  beautiful  insect,  with  a  magnifying 
glass  examine  its  wings  and  you  will  agree  with  me. 


Kinds  of  Sentences 

Sentences  are  classified  according  to  the  manner  in  which 
their  assertions  are  made: — 

1.  Declarative  sentence: 

John  brought  the  Packard  home  last  night. 

2.  Interrogative  sentence: 

Shall  you  need  the  machine  this  afternoon? 

3.  Imperative  sentence: 

Please,  Harry,  do  keep  a  firm  hand  on  the  wheel. 

4.  Exclamatory  sentence: 
How  smoothly  the  machine  runs! 

1.  A  sentence  which  states  a  fact  is  called  a  declarative 
sentence. 

2.  A  sentence  which  asks  a  question  is  called  an  in- 
terrogative sentence. 

3.  A  sentence  which  expresses  a  command,  or  an  en- 
treaty is  called  an  imperative  sentence. 

4.  A  sentence  which  expresses  strong  feeling  in  the 
manner  of  an  exclamation  is  called  an  exclamatory 
sentence. 

Note: — The  type  of  sentence  can  be  indicated  by  punctu- 
ation: 


THE  SENTENCE  125 

Every  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  declarative  sentence  and  generally  the  imperative 
sentence  should  end  with  a  period. 

The  interrogative  sentence  should  end  with  an  interro- 
gation point. 

The  exclamatory  sentence  should  end  with  an  exclamation 
point.     So  rarely  may  the  imperative  sentence. 

Note: — One  kind  of  sentence  may  include  another: 

1.  A  declarative  sentence  may  include  a  direct  quotation 
expressed  as  a  question,  or  as  a  command,  or  as  an  exclama- 
tion. 

Declarative  sentence  including  a  question : 

The  boy  ran  about  the  house  asking  of  everyone,  "Have  you 
seen  my  books  or  my  hat?" 

Declarative  sentence  including  a  command : 

The  boy  ran  about  the  house  demanding  of  everyone,  "Help 
me  find  my  books  and  my  hat." 

Declarative  sentence  including  an  exclamation : 

The  boy  ran  about  the  house  shouting,  "We  have  won  the 


game 


2.  An  interrogative  sentence  may  include  a  declaration,  a 
command,  or  an  exclamation : 

Did  you  hear  him  say,  "I  will  bring  the  book  tonight"? 
Interrogative  sentence  including  a  command: 
Did  you  hear  the  man  call,  "Lower  the  flag"? 

Interrogative  sentence  including  an  exclamation: 
Did  you  hear  the  child  cry,  "Fire!  Fire!"? 


126  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

Practice 

I.  Select  and  name  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in 
the   following: 

1.  The  man  cried,  "Will  no  one  come  to  help  me?" 

2.  Did  you  hear  Mary  say  to  her  Mother,  "I  am  not  going  to 
the  party  tonight "  ? 

3.  Tell  the  men  that  the  boat  has  been  sighted. 

4.  Ask  yourself,  ''What  have  I  done  to  help  my  brother?" 

5.  Did  you  hear  Mary  say  to  her  Mother  that  she  was  not  going 
to  the  party? 

6.  Ask  yourself  what  you  have  done  to  help  your  brother. 

7.  'Tire!  Fire!",  the  man  shouted  in  the  hall, 

8.  The  man  shouted,  "Fire!  Fire!" 

9.  Did  the  man  shout  "Fire!  Fire!"? 

10.  Did  you  say  that  the  man  shouted,  "Fire!  Fire!"? 

II.  That  the  man  shouted,  "Fire!  Fire!"  can  not  be  denied. 

12.  "Fire!  Fire!",  shouted  the  man, 

13.  "Man,  Man!"  returned  Carton,  stamping  his  foot;  "have 
I  sworn  by  no  solemn  vow  already,  to  go  through  with  this,  that 
you  waste  the  precious  moments  now? 

14.  Take  him  yourself  to  the  courtyard  you  know  of,  place  him 
yourself  in  the  carriage,  and  drive  away. 

15.  "Siguier  Petruchio,  will  you  go  with  us,  or  shall  I  send  my 
daughter  Kate  to  you"? 

16.  Then  here's  to  our  boyhood,  its  gold  and  its  gray! 
The  stars  of  its  winter,  the  dews  of  its  May! 
And  when  we  have  done  with  our  life-lasting  toys 
Dear  Father,  take  care  of  thy  children,  the  boys. 

17.  Look!  His  cry  is  answered.  A  woman  rushes  up  the  scaffold — 
a  woman  who  yesterday  was  a  mother,  and  now  is  childless,  because 
Robespierre  and  Death  have  grasped  her  boy. 

18.  In  very  much  this  way  Topsy's  training  proceeded  for  a  year 
or  two.  Miss  Ophelia  worrying  herself,  from  day  to  day,  with  her 
as  a  kind  of  chronic  plague,  to  whose  infliction  she  became,  in  time, 
as  accustomed  as  persons  sometimes  do  to  the  neuralgia  or  sick- 
headache. 

19.  Tiger,  tiger,  burning  bright 
In  the  forest  of  the  night, 


THE  SENTENCE  127 

What  immortal  hand  or  eye 
Framed  thy  fearful  symmetry? 

In  what  distant  deeps  or  skies 
Burned  that  fire  Avithin  thine  eyes? 
On  what  wings  dared  he  aspire? 
What  the  hand  dared  seize  the  fire? 

When  the  stars  threw  down  their  spears 
And  watered  heaven  with  their  tears, 
Did  he  smile  his  work  to  see 
Did  he  that  made  the  lamb  make  thee? 

20.  Lettuce  is  like  conversation:  it  must  be  fresh  and  crisp,  so 
sparkhng  that  you  scarcely  notice  the  bitter  in  it.  Lettuce,  hke 
most  talkers,  is,  however,  apt  to  run  rapidly  to  seed.  Blessed  is 
that  sort  which  comes  to  a  head,  and  so  remains,  like  a  few  people 
I  know;  growing  more  solid  and  satisfactory  and  tender  at  the 
same  time,  and  whiter  at  the  center,  and  crisp  in  their  maturity. 
Lettuce,  like  conversation,  requires  a  good  deal  of  oil,  to  avoid 
friction,  and  keep  the  company  smooth;  a  pinch  of  attic  salt;  a 
dash  of  pepper;  a  quantity  of  mustard  and  vinegar,  by  all  means, 
but  so  mixed  that  you  will  notice  no  sharp  contrasts;  and  a  trifle  of 
sugar.  You  can  put  anything,  and  the  more  things  the  better,  into 
salad,  as  into  conversation;  but  everything  depends  upon  the  skill 
of  mixing.  I  feel  that  I  am  in  the  best  society  when  I  am  with  let>- 
tuce.    It  is  in  the  select  circle  of  vegetables. 

21.  So  it  is  our  duty  to  take  and  maintain  the  safeguards  which 
will  see  to  it  that  the  mothers  of  America  and  the  mothers  of  France 
and  England  and  Italy  and  Belgium  and  all  other  suffering  nations 
should  never  be  called  upon  for  this  sacrifice  again.  This  can  be 
done.  It  must  be  done.  And  it  will  be  done.  The  things  that 
these  men  left  us,  though  they  did  not  in  their  counsels  conceive 
it,  is  the  great  instrument  which  we  have  just  erected  in  the  League 
of  Nations.  The  League  of  Nations  is  the  covenant  of  government 
that  these  men  shall  not  have  died  in  vain. 

22.  There  stood  Lincoln  in  the  forefront,  erect,  tall,  and  majestic 
in  appearance,  hurling  thunderbolts  at  the  foes  of  freedom,  while 
the  great  convention  roared  its  endorsement!  I  never  witnessed 
such  a  scene  before  or  since. 


128  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

23.  Now,  it  is  a  fact,  that  there  was  nothing  at  all  particular 
about  the  knocker  on  the  door,  except  that  it  was  very  large.  It 
is  also  a  fact,  that  Scrooge  had  seen  it,  night  and  morning,  during 
his  whole  residence  in  that  place;  also  that  Scrooge  had  as  little  of 
what  is  called  fancy  about  him  as  any  man  in  the  City  of  London, 
even  including — which  is  a  bold  word — the  corporation,  alder- 
men, and  livery.  Let  it  also  be  borne  in  mind,  that  Scrooge  had 
not  bestowed  one  thought  on  Marley  since  his  last  mention  of  his 
seven-years'  dead  partner  that  afternoon.  And  then  let  any  man 
explain  to  me,  if  he  can,  how  it  happened  that  Scrooge,  having  his 
key  in  the  lock  of  the  door,  saw  in  the  knocker,  without  its  under- 
going any  intermediate  process  of  change — not  a  knocker,  but 
Marley 's  face. 

24.  And  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June? 

Then  if  ever  come  perfect  days; 
Then  Heaven  tries  the  earth  if  it  be  in  tune, 

And  over  it  softly  her  warm  ear  lays: 
Whether  we  look,  or  whether  we  listen, 
We  hear  life  murmur,  or  see  it  ghsten; 
Every  clod  feels  a  stir  of  might, 

An  instinct  within  it  that  reaches  and  towers. 
And,  groping  blindly  above  it  for  light, 

Climbs  to  a  soul  in  grass  and  flowers; 

The  flush  of  life  may  well  be  seen 

ThriUing  back  over  hills  and  valleys; 
The  cowslip  startles  in  meadows  green, 

The  buttercup  catches  the  sun  in  its  chalice, 
And  there's  never  a  leaf  nor  a  blade  too  mean 

To  be  some  happy  creature's  palace; 

Clauses  and  Phrases 

Clauses  and  grammatical  phrases  are  word-groups  which 
function  in  the  sentence  like  parts-of -speech: — subject;  object  or 
complement;  modifier. 

His-losing-his-temper  (subject-phrase)  because-he-couldn't-have- 
his-way  (modifying  clause)  is  what-I  cannot-understand  (comple- 
ment-clause), in-so-sensible-a-fellow  (modifying  phrase). 


THE  SENTENCE  129 


Grammatical  Phrases 

The  grammatical  phrase  regularly  consists  of  a  relating 
word,  or  expression,  and  an  object,  or  complement;  it  never 
contains  a  subject  (save  possibly  the  '' absolute"  phrase)  or  a 
verb-proper. 

Note: — Verb-phrases  indicating  tense,  mode,  voice,  verb- 
form,  are  excluded  from  consideration  as  grammatical  phrases, 
since  they  have  already  been  treated  as  parts  and  forms  of 
the  verb  itself — the  verb  with  auxiliaries;  (see  Chapter  III, 
pp.  53  ff.).  Phrase-connectives  such  as  in-Jront-of,  as-far-as, 
etc.,  have  also  been  treated.    (See  pages  110,  119.) 

Grammatical  phrases  are  of  several  kinds: 

1.  Either  kind  of  infinitive  may  go  to  form  the  infinitive- 
phrase: 

the  infinitive  with  ^Ho"  and  an  object  or  other  comple- 
mentary expression : 

You  ought  io-do-your-duty. 
I  want  to-go-home. 

the  infinitive  in  '4ng"  when  it  takes  an  object: 
Forgiving-one' s-enemies  isn't  always  easy. 

2.  The^  preposition  with  its  object  forms  the  prepositional- 
phrase: 

He  went  down-town. 

3.  The  _participle  with  an  object  or  complement  may 
form  the  participial-phrase: 

the  active  participle  with  an  object: 

Tuming-the-comer,  the  man  came  upon  the  boy. 

the  passive  participle  with  a  complement: 
Being^made-wekome,  the  picnic  party  eagerly  fell  to. 


130  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

4.  Tjie  active  or  passive  participle  with  a  noun  or  pronoun 
in  the  nominative  case  may  form  the  ahsolute-phrase,  so 
called  because  it  is  independent  of  any  other  part  of  the 
sentence;  there  is  no  connecting  word: 

The-train-being-late,  the  traveller  sauntered  up  the  platform. 
The  train-arriving,  the  traveller  boarded  it. 

The  absolute  phrase  may  readily  be  changed  into  a  de- 
pendent clause: 

The-train-being-late  =  Because  the  train  was  late. 
The-train-arriving     =  When  the  train  arrived. 

The  Clauses 

The  distinctive   characteristic   of  the   clause   is  that  it 
always  contains  a  subject  and  a  verb-proper. 
It  may  be  dependent  or  independent: 

1.  The  independent  clause  is  a  simple  sentence. 

2.  The  dependent  clause  differs  from  the  simple  sentence 
in  that: 

(a)  when  standing  alone  it  does  not  express  a  complete 
thought; 

(b)  its  sign  is  its  introducing  word:  subordinating  con- 
junction, relative  pronoun,  or  adverb. 

I  don't  see  how  (adverb)  he  can  bear  to  stay  at  home  when  (ad- 
verb) all  his  classmates  are  in  service,  unless  (conjunction)  he  thinks 
that  (conjunction)  that  is  what  (pronoun)  he  owes  his  family. 

The  subordinate  clause  may  have  the  force  of  a  noun,  an 
adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

The  Noun-Clause 

The  noun-clause  is  used  to  express  a  direct  or  indirect 
statement  or  question.  The  noun-clause  of  statement  is 
generally    introduced    by  ■  the    conjunction    "that";    the 


THE  SENTENCE  131 

noun-clause    of    question    by    ''how/'    ''what,"    "when," 
"why,"  etc. 
The  noun-clause  may  be  used: 

1.  as  the  subject  of  the  verb: 

That  he  would  do  such  a  thing  proves  his  guilt  (statement). 
What  you  should  do  in  his  case  will  depend  on  the  evidence  (ques- 
tion). 

2.  as  the  object  of  the  verb: 

His  doing  such  a  thing  proves  that  he  is  guilty  (statement). 
The  evidence  alone  can  decide  what  you  should  do  (question). 

3.  In  apposition  with  the  subject: 

This  point  is  not  proved,  that  he  took  the  money  (statement) . 
The  question,  what  he  did  with  it,  has  never  been  settled  (question). 

4.  in  apposition  with  the  object: 

His  doing  such  a  thing  proves  my  point,  that  he  is  guilty  (state- 
ment). 

The  evidence  alone  can  decide  the  question,  ivhat  you  should  do 
(question). 

5.  as  attribute   complement: 

The  question  is,  what  can  we  do  about  it?  (direct) 
The  question  they  asked  was,  what  they  could  do  about  it  (in- 
direct). 

The  Adjective-Clause 

The   adjective-clause   is   introduced   by   a   relative   pro- 
noun or  relative  adverb,  expressed  or  understood. 
The  adjective-clause  may  be  used: 

1.  to  modify  the  subject: 

The  boy  who  brings  our  milk  will  post  your  letter  for  you. 

2.  to  modify  the  object: 

I  gave  the  boy  the  letters  which  I  had  written  (object  of  verb). 
He  put  them  in  the  bag  which  he  carried  (object  of  preposition). 
He  lives  in  the  house  where  I  was  born  (object  of  preposition). 


132  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


The  Adverbial  Clause 

An  adverbial  clause  may  show  time,  place,  cause,  pur- 
pose, comparison,  manner,  degree,  condition,  or  concession: 

When  you  finish  your  book  we  shall  go  for  a  ride  (time). 

We  shall  go  wherever  you  wish  (place). 

Susan  went  abroad  because  she  wished  to  see  the  Coro- 
nation (cause). 

Albert  has  entered  a  Business  College,  that  he  may  prepare 
himself  to  be  a  bookkeeper  (purpose). 

You  need  only  go  on  as  you  have  begun  (manner). 

As  the  twig  is  bent,  the  tree's  inclined  (comparison). 

Always  do  your  work  as  well  as  you  possibly  can  (degree). 

//  you  change  your  mind  let  me  know  (condition). 

Although  it  looks  like  rain,  we  will  not  defer  the  ride  (con- 
cession). 

Practice 

I.  Classify  the  clauses  in  the  following  selection,  tell  how 
they  are  used  and  what  they  denote: 

1.  When  you  go  down  town  please  order  two  quarts  of  ice  cream. 

2.  I  think  that  the  dress  that  you  wore  last  night  is  the  most 
becoming  dress  you  wear. 

3.  Did  you  say  that  your  brother  has  bought  a  new  boat? 

4.  We  shall  go  home  when  ever  you  vnsh. 

5.  If  your  machine  is  ready  will  you  take  mother  home? 

6.  Although  I  think  it  is  a  risk  to  drive  that  horse,  I  will  go  with 
you. 

7.  If  you  speak  harshly  to  that  dog,  he  will  not  like  you. 

8.  While  the  attendants  hastened  to  obey  Cedric's  commands, 
his  eye  distinguished  Gurth  the  swine-herd,  who,  with  his  companion 
Wamba,  had  just  entered  the  hall.  "Send  these  loitering  knaves 
up  hither,"  said  the  Saxon,  impatiently.  And  when  the  culprits 
came  before  the  dais — "How  comes  it,  villains!  that  you  have  loi- 
tered abroad  so  late  as  this?  Hast  thou  brought  home  thy  charge, 
sirrah  Gurth,  or  hast  thou  left  them  to  robbers  and  marauders?" 


THE  SENTENCE  133 


II.  Write: 


1.  Three  simple  sentences,  one  with  a  compound  subject,  one 
with  a  compound  predicate,  and  one  with  a  compound  object. 

2.  Five  compound  sentences,  using  in  every  case  a  different  co- 
ordinating conjunction. 

3.  A  compound  sentence  of  two  clauses,  connecting  the  two 
parts  with  and,  and  tell  the  idea  expressed  by  the  conjunction;  a 
compound  sentence  of  two  clauses  connected  by  but,  and  tell  the 
idea  expressed  by  the  conjunction. 

4.  A  compound  sentence  of  two  parts  connected  by  or,  and  give 
the  idea  expressed  by  the  conjunction. 

5.  A  compound  sentence  of  two  parts  connected  by  either-or,  and 
explain  the  idea  expressed  by  the  correlative. 

6.  A  compound  sentence  of  two  parts  connected  by  neither-nor, 
and  explain  the  idea  expressed  by  the  correlative. 

7.  A  compound  sentence  of  two  parts  connected  by  not-only  and 
hvl-also,  and  explain  the  idea  expressed  by  the  correlatives. 

8.  A  complex  imperative  sentence  containing  one  independent 
clause  and  one  restrictive  adjective-clause,  connected  by  the  con- 
junction that. 

9.  A  complex  interrogative  sentence  containing  one  or  more  inde- 
pendent clauses,  one  of  them  being  an  adjective  clause  connected 
by  the  relative  who. 

10.  A  complex  declarative  sentence  containing  two  independent 
clauses  connected  by  both;  and  two  subordinate  clauses,  one  an  ad- 
jective clause,  connected  by  which ^  and  one  an  adverbial  clause  con- 
nected by  when. 

11.  A  compound-complex  sentence  containing  two  independent 
clauses  connected  by  either-or;  and  two  subordinate  clauses,  one  an 
adjective  clause,  connected  by  the  phrase-conjunction  as-good-as, 
and  one  adverbial  connected  by  the  phrase-conjunction  as-far-as. 

III.  Select  the  simple,  the  complex,  and  the  compound 
sentences: 

1.  And  Absalom  rode  upon  a  mule,  and  the  mule  went  under 
the  thick  boughs  of  a  great  oak,  and  his  head  caught  hold  of  the 
oak,  and  he  was  taken  up  between  the  heaven  and  the  earth;  and 
the  mule  that  was  under  him  went  away.  And  a  certain  man  saw 
it,  and  told  Joab,  and  said,  ''Behold,  I  saw  Absalom  hanged  in  an 


134  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

oak."  And  Joab  said  unto  the  man  that  told  him,  "And,  behold, 
thou  sawest  him,  and  why  didst  thou  not  smite  him  there  to  the 
ground?  And  I  would  have  given  thee  ten  shekels  of  silver  and  a 
girdle."  And  the  man  said  unto  Joab,  "Though  I  should  receive  a 
thousand  shekels  of  silver  in  mine  hand,  yet  would  I  not  put  forth 
mine  hand  against  the  King's  son." 

2.  And  it  came  to  pass  at  the  end  of  forty  days,  that  Noah  opened 
the  window  of  the  ark  which  he  had  made,  and  he  sent  forth  a 
raven,  which  went  forth  to  and  fro,  until  the  waters  were  dried  up 
from  off  the  earth.  Also  he  sent  forth  a  dove  from  him  to  see  if 
the  waters  were  abated  from  off  the  face  of  the  ground;  but  the 
dove  found  no  rest  for  the  sole  of  her  foot,  and  she  returned  unto 
him  into  the  ark,  for  the  waters  were  on  the  face  of  the  whole  earth; 
then  he  put  forth  his  hand,  and  took  her,  and  pulled  her  in  unto  him 
into  the  ark. 

3.  And  Moses  stretched  out  his  hand  over  the  sea;  and  the  Lord 
caused  the  sea  to  go  back  by  a  strong  east  wind  all  that  night,  and 
made  the  sea  dry  land,  and  the  waters  were  divided.  And  the 
children  of  Israel  went  into  the  midst  of  the  sea  upon  the  dry  ground, 
and  the  waters  were  a  wall  unto  them  on  their  right  hand,  and  on 
their  left. 

4.  My  dear  Sidney  Colvin:  — 

The  journey  which  this  little  book  is  to  describe  was  very 
agreeable  and  fortunate  for  me.  After  an  uncouth  beginning,  I 
had  the  best  of  luck  to  the  end.  But  we  are  all  travelers  in  what 
John  Bunyan  calls  the  wilderness  of  this  world, — all,  too,  travelers 
with  a  donkey;  and  the  best  that  we  find  in  our  travels  is  an  honest 
friend.  He  is  a  fortunate  voyager  who  finds  many.  We  travel, 
indeed,  to  find  them.  They  are  the  end  and  the  reward  of  life. 
They  keep  us  worthy  of  ourselves;  and  when  we  are  alone,  we  are 
only  nearer  to  the  absent. 

'  Every  book  is,  in  an  intimate  sense,  a  circular  letter  to  the  friends 
of  him  who  writes  it.  They  alone  take  his  meaning;  they  find  pri- 
vate messages,  assurances  of  love,  and  expressions  of  gratitude 
dropped  for  them  in  every  corner.  The  public  is  but  a  generous 
patron  who  defrays  the  postage.  Yet,  though  the  letter  is  directed 
to  all,  we  have  an  old  and  kindly  custom  of  addressing  it  on  the 
outside  to  one.  Of  what  shall  a  man  be  proud,  if  he  is  not  proud  of 
his  friends?  And  so,  my  dear  Sidney  Colvin,  it  is  with  pride  that 
I  sign  myself  affectionately  yours,  ^    j^    g^ 


THE  SENTENCE  135 


Analysis 

We  have  studied  the  kinds,  forms  and  uses  of  individual 
words  in  the  sentence,  together  with  such  modifications 
as  person,  gender,  number,  case,  degree,  mode,  voice,  tense. 
To  state  the  kind,  form,  and  function  of  a  given  word  in 
a  given  sentence  is  to  parse  that  word.  (See  appendix  for 
rules.)  We  have  now  to  study  the  construction  of  the 
sentence  by  taking  it  apart  and  showing  how  its  component 
parts — phrases  and  clauses — are  related.  This  process  is 
called  analysis.     (See  appendix  for  scheme.) 

In  giving  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  it  is  customary: 

1.  to  tell  the  kind  and  form  of  sentence: 

whether  it  be  declarative,  imperative,  interrogative,  or  ^ 

exclamatory ; 
whether  simple,  compound,  or  complex; 

2.  to  analyze  the  clauses  of  which  it  is  made  up : 

to  separate  the  independent  from  the  dependent  dnnspR!  • 
tQ  analyze  first  the  principal  clause,  or  clauses,  into  the 

essential  parts; 
subject  and  predicate; 
modifiers  of  essential  parts ; 
to  show  how  the  essential  parts  are  related  and  what 

thev  denote; 
to  analyze  the  subordinate  clause  or  clauses  in  the  same 

way,  and  to  show  in  what  relation  they  stand  to  thp 

clauses  on  which  they  depend. 

Let  us  look  into,  or  analyze,  the  Twenty-third  Psalm, 
notice  the  kinds  and  forms  of  sentences  it  contains:  how 
many  simple,  compound,  complex;  how  many  declarative, 
interrogative,  imperative,  exclamatory: 

The  Lord  is  my  shepherd; 
I  shall  not  want, 


136  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

He  maketh  me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures; 

He  leadeth  me  beside  the  still  waters. 

He  restoreth  my  soul; 

He  guideth  me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness  for  His  name's  sake. 

Yea,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death 

I  will  fear  no  evil; 

For  thou  art  with  me; 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me. 

Thou  preparest  a  table  before  me 

In  the  presence  of  mine  enemies; 

Thou  hast  anointed  my  head  with  oil; 

My  cup  runneth  over. 

Surely  goodness  and  mercy  shall  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life, 

And  I  will  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  forever. 

The  first  two  lines  are  made  up  of  the  simplest  kind  of 
simple  sentences — direct  statements  consisting  of  the  essen- 
tial subject  and  predicate,  with  almost  no  modifiers. 

The  third  and  fourth  lines  continue  the  simple  declaration 
expanding  the  promise  by  means  of  the  infinitive  phrase — 
to  lie  down  in  green  pastures  and  the  prepositional  phrase — 
beside  the  still  waters. 

The  fifth  gives  the  simple  unmodified  declaration,  He  re- 
storeth my  soul. 

The  sixth  is  a  simple  statement  expanded  by  the  two  prep- 
ositional phrases,  in  the  paths  of  righteousness,  and  for  his 
name^s  sake. 

The  first  line  of  the  second  stanza  uses  a  subordinate 
subjunctive  clause,  though  I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the 
shadow  of  death. 

The  next  three  lines  are  simple  sentences. 

The  first  four  lines  of  the  last  stanza  consist  of  simple 
declarative   statements. 

The  poem  concludes  with  a  compound  sentence  which 
is  a  summing  up  of  the  whole. 

The  poem  consists  of  twelve  simple  declarative  sentences, 
one  complex,  and  one  compound  sentence. 


THE  SENTENCE  137 

Look  into  Our  Lord's  Prayer  for  examples  of  the  simple 
imperative   sentence : 

Our  Father  which  art  in  Heaven; 

Hallowed  be  thy  name, 

Thy  Kingdom  come, 

Thy  will  be  done, 

As  in  Heaven,  so  on  earth. 

Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 
And  forgive  us  our  debts. 
As  we  also  have  forgiven  our  debtors. 
And  bring  us  not  into  temptation. 
But  deliver  us  from  the  evil  one. 

The  first  stanza  of  the  Forty-Sixth  Psalm  is  an  example 
of  the  use  of  the  subjunctive  mode: 

God  is  our  refuge  and  strength, 

A  very  present  help  in  trouble. 

Therefore  will  we  not  fear,  though  the  earth  do  change. 

And  though  the  mountains  be  moved  in  the  heart  of  the  seas; 

Though  the  waters  thereof  roar  and  be  troubled. 

Though  the  mountains  shake  with  the  swelling  thereof. 

The  Lord  of  hosts  is  with  us. 

The  God  of  Jacob  is  our  refuge. 

The  thirty-seventh  verse  of  the  twenty-third  chapter  of 
St.  Matthew  gives  an  exclamatory  sentence  of  deep  feeling: 

0  Jerusalem,  Jerusalem,  thou  that  killest  the  prophets,  and 
stonest  them  which  are  sent  unto  thee,  how  often  would  I  have 
gathered  thy  children  together,  even  as  a  hen  gathereth  her  chickens 
under  her  wings,  and  ye  would  not! 

Practice 
L  Analyze  the  sentences  in  the  following  selections: 

I.  With  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness 
in  the  right,  as  God  gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  on  to 
finish  the  work  we  are  in,  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds,  to  care 
for  him  who  shall  have  borne  the  battle,  and  for  his  widow  and 


138  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

his  children  —  to  do  all  which  may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and 
lasting  peace  among  ourselves  and  with  all  nations. 

2.  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth 
upon  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedi- 
cated to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now  we 
are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation,  or 
any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure.  We 
are  met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war.  We  have  come  to  dedi- 
cate a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for  those  who 
here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It  is  altogether 
fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this.  But  in  a  larger  sense 
we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate,  we  cannot  hallow  this 
ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and  dead,  who  struggled  here, 
have  consecrated  it  far  above  our  power  to  add  or  detract.  The 
world  will  little  note,  nor  long  remember,  what  we  say  here,  but  it 
can  never  forget  what  they  did  here.  It  is  for  us,  the  living,  rather 
to  be  dedicated  here  to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought 
here  have  thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  us,  that  from  these 
honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause  for  which 
they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion;  that  we  here  highly 
resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in  vain;  that  this  nation, 
under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of  freedom,  and  that  government 
of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people  shall  not  perish 
from  the  earth. 

3.  Two  of  the  strongest  monkeys  caught  Mowgli  under  the  arms 
and  swung  off  with  him  through  the  tree-tops,  twenty  feet  at  a 
bound. 

4.  This  is  the  story  of  the  great  war  that  Rikki-tikki-tavi  fought 
single-handed,  through  the  bath-room  of  the  big  bungalow  in 
Segowlee  cantonment. 

Darzee,  the  tailor-bird,  helped  him,  and  Chuchundra,  the  musk- 
rat,  who  never  comes  out  into  the  middle  of  the  floor,  but  always 
creeps  round  by  the  wall,  gave  him  advice;  but  Rikki-tikki-tavi 
did  the  real  fighting. 

5.  I  have  seen  too  much  of  success  in  life  to  take  off  my  hat  and 
huzzah  to  it  as  it  passes  in  its  gilt  coach;  and  would  do  my  little 
part  with  my  neighbors  on  foot,  that  they  should  not  gape  with 
too  much  wonder,  nor  applaud  too  loudly. 

I  look  into  my  heart,  and  think  that  I  am  as  good  as  my  Lord 
Mayor,  and  know  I  am  as  bad  as  Tyburn  Jack. 


THE  SENTENCE  139 

6.  The  drawbridge  dropped  with  a  surly  clang, 
And  through  the  dark  arch  a  charger  sprang. 

7.  Now  Zeus,  after  that  he  had  brought  the  Trojans  and  Hector 
to  the  ships,  left  them  to  their  toil  and  endless  labor  there. 

8.  They  gave  him  of  the  corn-land, 
That  was  of  public  right, 

As  much  as  two  strong  oxen 
Could  plough  from  morn  till  night. 

9.  I  fear  thee,  ancient  Mariner! 
I  fear  thy  skinny  hand! 

And  thou  art  long,  and  lank,  and  brown, 
As  is  the  ribbed  sea-sand. 

10.  Then  they  clinched  and  rolled  over  and  over,  whacking  and 
pounding,  snorting  and  growling,  and  making  no  end  of  dust  and 
rumpus.  But  above  all  their  noise  I  could  clearly  hear  Little  Johnny, 
yelling  at  the  top  of  his  voice,  and  evidently  encouraging  his  mother 
to  go  right  in  and  finish  the  Grizzly  at  once. 

11.  Happiness  only  begins  when  wishes  end;  and  he  who  hankers 
after  more,  enjoys  nothing. 

12.  Labor  is  prior  to  and  independent  of  capital.  Capital  is  only 
the  fruit  of  labor,  and  could  never  have  existed  if  labor  had  not 
first  existed;  labor  is  the  superior  of  capital,  and  deserves  much 
the  higher  consideration. 

13.  It  is  only  by  labor  that  thought  can  be  made  healthy,  and 
only  by  thought  that  labor  can  be  happy;  and  the  two  cannot  be 
separated  with  impunity. 

14.  The  motto  marked  upon  our  foreheads,  written  upon  our 
door  posts,  channelled  in  the  earth,  and  wafted  upon  the  waves, 
is  and  must  be,  — 

"Labor  is  honorable,  and  idleness  is  dishonorable." 

15.  One  secret  of  Mr.  Lincoln's  remarkable  success  in  captivating 
the  popular  mind  is  undoubtedly  an  unconsciousness  of  self  which 
enables  him,  though  under  the  necessity  of  constantly  using  the 
capital  I,  to  do  it  without  any  suggestion  of  egotism.  There  is  no 
single  vowel  which  men's  mouths  can  pronounce  with  such  differ- 
ence of  effect.  That  which  one  shall  hide  away,  as  it  were,  behind 
the  substance  of  his  discourse,  or,  if  he  bring  it  to  the  front,  shall 
use  merely  to  give  an  agreeable  accent  of  individuality  to  what  he 
says,  another  shall  make  an  offensive  challenge  to  the  self-satisfac- 
tion of  all  his  hearers,  and  an  unwarranted  intrusion  upon  each 
man's  sense  of  personal  importance,  irritating  every  pore  of  his 


140  GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 

vanity;  like  a  dry  northeast  wind,  to  a  goose-flesh  of  opposition  and 
hostility.  Mr.  Lincoln  has  never  studied  Quintilian;  but  he  has, 
in  the  earnest  simplicity  and  unaffected  Americanism  of  his  own 
character,  one  art  of  oratory  worth  all  the  rest.  He  forgets  himself 
so  entirely  in  his  object  as  to  give  his  I  the  sympathetic  and  per- 
suasive effect  of  We  wdth  the  great  body  of  his  countrymen.  Homely, 
dispassionate,  showing  all  the  rough-edged  process  of  his  thought 
as  it  goes  along,  yet  arriving  at  his  conclusions  with  an  honest  kind 
of  every-day  logic,  he  is  so  eminently  our  representative  man,  that, 
when  he  speaks,  it  seems  as  if  the  people  were  Hstening  to  their 
own  thinking  aloud. 

The  dignity  of  his  thought  owes  nothing  to  any  ceremonial  garb 
of  words,  but  to  the  manly  movement  that  comes  of  settled  purpose 
and  an  energy  of  reason  that  knows  not  what  rhetoric  means. 
There  has  been  nothing  of  Cleon,  still  less  of  Strepsiades  striving 
to  underbid  him  in  demagogism,  to  be  found  in  the  public  utter- 
ances of  Mr.  Lincoln.  He  has  always  addressed  the  intelligence 
of  men,  never  their  prejudice,  their  passion,  or  their  ignorance. 

16.  "That  suggests,  Mr.  Lincoln,  an  inquiry  which  has  several 
times  been  upon  my  lips  during  this  conversation.  I  want  very 
much  to  know  how  you  got  this  unusual  power  of  'putting  things.' 
It  must  have  been  a  matter  of  education.  No  man  has  it  by  nature 
alone.    What  has  your  education  been?" 

"Well,  as  to  education,  the  newspapers  are  correct.  I  never 
went  to  school  more  than  six  months  in  my  life.  But,  as  you  say, 
this  must  be  a  product  of  culture  in  some  form.  I  have  been  putting 
the  question  you  ask  me  to  myself  while  you  have  been  talking. 
I  say  this,  that  among  my  earliest  recollections,  I  remember  how, 
when  a  mere  child,  I  used  to  get  irritated  when  anybody  talked  to 
me  in  a  way  I  could  not  understand.  I  don't  think  I  ever  got 
angry  at  anything  else  in  my  life.  But  that  always  disturbed  my 
temper,  and  has  ever  since.  I  can  remember  going  to  my  little 
bedroom,  after  hearing  the  neighbors  talk  of  an  evening  with  my 
father,  and  spending  no  small  part  of  the  night  walking  up  and 
down,  and  trying  to  make  out  what  was  the  exact  meaning  of  some 
of  their,  to  me,  dark  sayings.  I  could  not  sleep,  though  I  often 
tried  to,  when  I  got  on  such  a  hunt  after  an  idea,  until  I  had  caught 
it;  and  when  I  thought  I  had  got  it,  I  was  not  satisfied  until  I  had 
repeated  it  over  and  over  again,  until  I  had  put  it  in  language 
plain  enough,  as  I  thought,  for  any  boy  I  knew  to  comprehend. 
This  was  a  kind  of  passion  %vith  me,  and  it  has  stuck  by  me,  for  I 


THE  SENTENCE  141 

am  never  easy  now,  when  I  am  handling  a  thought,  till  I  have 
bomided  it  north  and  bounded  it  south  and  bounded  it  east  and 
bounded  it  west.  Perhaps  that  accounts  for  the  characteristic  you 
observe  in  my  speeches,  though  I  never  put  the  two  things  together 
before." 


142 


GRAMMAR  AND  PRACTICE 


Outline  Summart 


Grammatical 
Phrases 


Kind  and 
Form 


Clauses 


Sentences 


Use 


Kind  and 
Form 


Use 


Kind  and 
Use 


Form 


f  a.  the  infinitive  with  "to",  and  an 
J  ob j  ect  or  complement ; 

i'  b.  the  infinitive  in  "ing",  and  an 
[  object. 

2.  Prepositional:     the  preposition  and  its  object. 

f  a.  the    active    participle    and    an 
object, 
b.  the    passive    participle    and    a 

complement, 
the  active  or  passive  participle  with 
noun,  pronoun,  or  equivalent,  in 
nominative  case. 


1.  Infinitive: 


3.  Participial: 


4.  Absolute: 


1.  Infinitive:  noun-phrase;  can  be  subject,  object, 

objective  complement,  or  appositive. 

2.  Prepositional:  adjective    or    adverbial    phrase;    can 

modify  accordingly. 

3.  Participial:       adjective   or  adverbial   phrase;    can 

modify  accordingly. 

4.  Absolute:         adverbial  phrase;  can  modify  accord- 

ingly. 


1.  Independent: 

2.  Dependent: 


the  simple  sentence. 
f  a.  noun-clause, 
\  b.  adjective  clause. 
[  c.  adverbial  clause. 


1.  Noun-clause  may  be  subject,  object,  or  appositive. 

2.  Adjective  clause  may  modify  nouns,  pronouns,  or 

equivalents. 

3.  Adverbial    clause    may    modify    verbs,    adjectives, 

other  adverbs,  or  equivalents  of  any. 

1.  Declarative:  makes  an  assertion. 

2.  Interrogative:  asks  a  question. 

3.  Imperative:  makes  a  command  or  entreaty. 

4.  Exclamatory:  expresses  deep  feeUng. 

1.  Simple:  but  one  statement,  question,  or  command. 

2.  Compound:  two  or  more  independent  clauses. 

3.  Complex:  one  or  more  independent  clauses  and  one 

or  more  dependent  clauses. 


APPENDIX 

A.  The  Conjugation  of  the  Verb 

By  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  we  mean  a  complete 
display  of  all  its  parts  and  forms:  (1)  the  verb-forms;  (2) 
the  modes  and  the  verbals;  (3)  the  tenses;  and  (4)  the  per- 
sons and  numbers. 

INDICATIVE  MODE 


Simple  Form 

Progressive  Form 
Present 

Emphatic  Form 

Singular 

Singular 

Singular 

I  go 

you  go  (thou  goest) 

he  goes 

I  am  going 

you  are  (thou  art)  going 

he  is  going 

I  do  go 
you  do  go 
he  does  go 

Plural 

Plural 

Plural 

we  go 
you  go 
they  go 

we  are  going 
you  are  going 
they  are  going 

Past 

we  do  go 
you  do  go 
they  do  go 

Singular 

Singular 

Singular 

I  went 
you  went 
he  went 

I  was  going 

you  were  (thou  wert)  going 

he  was  going 

I  did  go 
you  did  go 
he  did  go 

Plural 

Plural 

Plural 

we  went 
you  went 
they  went 

we  were  going 
you  were  going 
they  were  going 

we  did  go 
you  did  go 
they  did  go 

144 


APPENDIX 


Simple  Form 

Singular 
I  shall  go 
you  will  go 
he  will  go 

Plural 
we  shall  go 
you  will  go 
they  will  go 


Progressive  Form 
Simple  Future 
Singular 
I  shall  be  going 
you  will  be  going 
he  will  be  going 

Plural 

we  shall  be  going 
you  will  be  going 
they  will  be  going 


Future  (will  or  determination) 
Singular  Singular 

I  will  go  I  will  be  going 

you  shall  (thou  shalt)  go  you  shall  (thou  shalt)  be  going 

he  shall  go  he  shall  be  going 


Plural 
we  will  go 
you  shall  go 
they  shall  go 


Singular 

I  have  gone 

you  have  (thou  hast)  gone 

he  has  gone 


Plural 

we  will  be  going 
you  shall  be  going 
they  shall  be  going 

Perfect 
Singular 
I  have  been  going 
you  have  (thou  hast)  been  going 
he  has  been  going 

Plural 

we  have  been  going 
you  have  been  going 
they  have  been  going 

Past  Perfect 
Singular  Singular 

I  had  gone  I  had  been  going 

you  had  (thou  hadst)  gone     you  had  (thou  hadst)  been  going 
he  had  gone  they  had  been  going 


Plural 
we  have  gone 
you  have  gone 
they  have  gone 


APPENDIX  145 

Simple  Form  Progressive  Form 

Plural  Plural 

we  had  gone  we  had  been  going 

you  had  gone  you  had  been  going 

they  had  gone  they  had  been  going 

Future  Perfect 
Singular  Singular 

I  shall  have  gone  I  shall  have  been  going 

you  will  (thou  wilt)  have  gone      you  will  (thou  wilt)  have  been  going 
he  will  have  gone  he  will  have  been  going 

Plural  Plural 

we  shall  have  gone  we  shall  have  been  going 

you  will  have  gone  you  will  have  been  going 

they  will  have  gone  they  will  have  been  going 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
Simple  Form  Progressive  Form      Emphatic  Form 

Present 
(If)  I,  you,  he  go  (If)  I,  you,  he  do  go 

(If)  we,  you,  they  go  (If)  we,  you,  they  do  go 

(If)  I,  you,  he  be  going 
(If)  we,  you,  they  be  going 

Past 
(If)  I,  you,  he  went  (If)  I,  you,  he  did  go 

(If)  we,  you,  they  went  (If)  we,  you,  they  did  go 

(If)  I,  you,  he  were  going 

(If)  we,  you,  they  were  going 


IMPERATIVE  MODE 

Simple  Form 

Progressive  Form 
Present 

Emphatic  Form 

go 

be  going 

INFINITIVES 
Present 

do  go 

to  go,  gomg 

to  be  going 

146 


APPENDIX 


Perfect 
to  have  gone,  having  gone        to  have  been  going 

PARTICIPLES 
Present 
going 


having  gone 


Perfect 
having  been  going 


ACTIVE  VOICE 
INDICATIVE  MODE 


Simple  Form 

Progressive  Form 
Present 

Emphatic  Form 

Singular 

Singular 

Singular 

I  make 
you  make 

(thou  makest) 
he  makes 

I  am  making 
you  are  (thou  art) 

making 
he  is  making 

I  do  make 

you  do  (thou  dost) 

make 
he  does  make 

Plural 

Plural 

Plural 

we  make 
you  make 
they  make 

we  are  making 
you  are  making 
they  are  making 

Past 

we  do  make 
you  do  make 
they  do  make 

Singular 

Singular 

Singular 

I  made 
you  made 

(thou  madest) 
he  made 

I  was  making 

you  were  (thou  wast) 

making 
he  was  making 

I  did  make 

you  did  (thou  didst) 

make 
he  did  make 

Plural 

Plural 

Plural 

we  made 
you  made 
they  made 

we  were  making 
you  were  making 
they  were  making 

we  did  make 
you  did  make 
they  did  make 

APPENDIX 


147 


Simple  Form 


Singular 


I  shall  make 

you  will  (thou  wilt)  make 

he  will  make 


Progressive  Form 
Simple  Future 

Singular 

I  shall  be  making 

you  will  (thou  wilt)  be  making 

he  will  be  making 


Plural 
we  shall  make 
you  will  make 
they  will  make 


Plural 

we  shall  be  making 
you  will  be  making 
they  will  be  making 


Future 
(will  or  determination) 
Singular  Singular 

I  will  make  I  will  be  making 

you  shall  (thou  shalt)  make  you    shall    (thou    shalt)    be 

making 
he  shall  make  he  shall  be  making 


Plural 
we  will  make 
you  shall  make 
they  shall  make 


Plural 

we  will  be  making 
you  shall  be  making 
they  shall  be  making 


Perfect 


Singular 

I  have  made 

you  have  (thou  hast)  made 

he  has  made 

Plural 
we  have  made 
you  have  made 
they  have  made 


Singular 

I  have  been  making 

you   have    (thou   hast) 

making 
he  has  been  making 

Plural 

we  have  been  making 
you  have  been  making 
they  have  been  making 


been 


148 


APPENDIX 


Simple  Fobm 

SiNGULAE 

I  had  made 

you  had  (thou  hadst)  made 

he  had  made 


Plural 
we  had  made 
you  had  made 
they  had  made 


Singular 

I  shall  have  made 

you  shall  (thou  shalt) 

have  made 
he  shall  have  made 

Plural 

we  shall  have  made 
you  shall  have  made 
they  shall  have  made 


Progressive  Form 
Past  Perfect 

Singular 

I  had  been  making 

you  had  (thou  hadst)  been 

making 
he  had  been  making 

Plural 

we  had  been  making 
you  had  been  making 
they  had  been  making 

Future  Perfect 

Singular 

I  shall  have  been  making 

you  shall  (thou  shalt)  have 

been  making 
he  shall  have  been  making 

Plural 

we  shall  have  been  making 
you  shall  have  been  making 
they  shall  have  been  making 


Simple  Form 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
Progressive  Form    Emphatic  Form 


Present 
(If)  I,  you,  he  make  (If)  I,  you,  he  do  make 

(If)  we,  you,  they  make  (If)  we,  you,  they  do  make 

(If)  I,  you,  he  were  making 

(If)  we,  you,  they  be  making 

Past 
(If)  I,  you,  he  made  (If)  I,  you,  he  did  make 

(If)  we,  you,  they  made  (If)  we,  you,  they  did  make 

(If)  I,  you,  he  were  making 

(If)  we,  you,  they  were  making 


APPENDIX 

149 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 

Simple  Form 

Progressive  Form 

Emphatic  Form 

make 

be  making 

do  make 

INFINITIVES 

Present 

to  make,  making 

to  be  making 

Perfect 
to  have  made,  having  made    to  have  been  making 


making 
having  made 


PARTICIPLES 
Present 

Perfect 

having  been  making 


PASSIVE  VOICE 


INDICATIVE  MODE 


Simple  Form 


Present 


Singular 

I  am  made 

you  are  (thou  art)  made 

he  is  made 

Plural 
we  are  made 
you  are  made 
they  are  made 


Progressive  Form 

Singular 

I  am  being  made 

you  are  (thou  art) 

being  made 
he  is  being  made 

Plural 

we  are  being  made 
you  are  being  made 
they  are  being  made 


150 

APPENDIX 

Simple  Form 

Past 

Progressive  Form 

Singular 

Singular 

I  was  made 

you  were  (thou  wast) 

made 
he  was  made 

I  was  being  made 
you  were  (thou  wast) 

being  made 
he  was  being  made 

Plural 

Plural 

we  were  made 
you  were  made 
they  were  made 

Simple  Future 

we  were  being  made 
you  were  being  made 
they  were  being  made 

I  shall  be  made 

Future 

I  will  be  made 

(will  or  determination) 

1 

Perfect 

I  have  been  made 

Past  Perfect 

I  had  been  made 

Future  Perfect 

I  shall  have  been  made 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 

Simple  Form 

Progressive  Form 

(If)  I  be  made 

Present 
Past 

(If)  I  were  made 

(If)  I  were  being  made 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 

Present 

be  made 


APPENDIX 


151 


Simple  Form 

to  be  made,  being  made 


INFINITIVES 

Present 


Perfect 
to  have  been  made,  having  been  made 


Present 

being  made 

Past 

made 

Perfect 

having  been  made 

INDICATIVE  MODE 

Simple  Form 

Progressive  Form 
Present 

Singular 

Singular 

I  am 

you  are  (thou  j 

he  is 

art) 

I  am  being 

you  are  (thou  art)  being 

he  is  being 

Plural 

Plural 

we  are 
you  are 
they  are 

we  are  being 
you  are  being 
they  are  being 

Past 

Singular 

Singular 

I  was 

you  were  (thou  wast) 

he  was 

I  was  being 

you  were  (thou  wast)  being 

he  was  being 

152 


APPENDIX 


Simple  Form 
Plural 
we  were 
you  were 
they  were 

Singular 

I  shall  be 

you  will  (thou  wilt)  be 

he  will  be 


Progressive  Form 

Plural 

we  were  being 

you  were  being 

they  were  being 


Simple  Future 


Plural 
we  shall  be 
you  will  be 
they  will  be 


Singular 


Future 
(will  or  determination) 


I  will  be 

you  shall  (thou  shalt)  be 

he  shall  be 

Plural 
we  will  be 
you  shall  be 
they  shall  be 


Singular 

I  have  been 

you  have  (thou  hast)  been 

he  has  been 


Perfect 


Plural 
we  have  been 
you  have  been 
they  have  been 


APPENDIX  153 

Simple  Form 

Past  Perfect 
Singular 
I  had  been 

you  had  (thou  hadst)  been 
he  had  been 

Plural 
we  had  been 
you  had  been 
they  had  been 

Future  Perfect 
Singular 
I  shall  have  been 
you  shall  (thou  shalt)  have  been 
he  shall  have  been 

Plural 

we  shall  have  been 
you  shall  have  been 
they  shall  have  been 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE 
Present 
(If)  I,  you,  thou,  he  be 
(If),  we  you,  they  be 

Past 
(If)  I,  you,  he  were  (thou  wert) 
(If)  we,  you,  they  were 

IMPERATIVE  MODE 
be 

INFINITIVES 
Present 
to  be,  being 

Perfect 
to  have  been,  havmg  been 

PARTICIPLES 

Present 
being 

Perfect 
having  been 


B.  Analysis 

The  analysis  of  the  sentence  may  be  written  out,  or  it 
may  be  shown  by  means  of  Unes.    Thus: 

(1)  The  man  who  lives  in  that  house  is  the  owner  of  a  gold 
mine. 


lives 


house 


(2)  That  we  have  the  better  team  is  certain  for  the  coach  says 
that  our  men  are  the  heavier,  and  that  they  are  the  better  trained. 


have 


.Z^ 


is  \  certain 


coach 


are  \^  heavier  they  [  are  \  trained 

1  and! 


^:X. 


APPENDIX 


155 


(3)  To  he  pleasant  when  everything  is  going  as  we  wish 
is  no  difficult  task,  hut  it  is  not  easy  to  he  pleasant  when  every- 
thing seems  to  he  going  wrong. 


be    \    pleasant 


everything: 


going 


^ 


we   I    wish 


\     be  \    pleasant 
iverything     ,         seems 


v^o\%-,  ^     be        going 


/\ 


UA)_^ 


The  principal  parts  of  a  sentence:  subject,  predicate,  and  comple- 
ment are  placed  on  a  horizontal  line. 

The  subject  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a  perpendicular 
line  cutting  the  horizontal  line.      1 

The  object-complement  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a 
perpendicular  Hne  joining  the  horizontal  line.  \ 

The  attribute  complement  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by 
a  line  joining  the  horizontal  line  and  slanting  toward  the 
subject.  \ 

The  objective  complement  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a 
Une  joining  the  horizontal  line  and  slanting  toward  the  object  com- 
plement.        Z l_ 

The  coordinating  conjunction  is  placed  on  a  horizontal  line 
and  joined  to  the  parts  it  connects  by  perpendicular  dotted 
lines.       . 


The  subordinate  conjunction  is  placed  upon  a  slanting  dotted 


156  APPENDIX 

line,  or  a  part  dotted  and  part  heavy  line  when  used  as  a  modifier, 
the  heavy  part  of  the  line  to  connect  with  the  word  modified  by 
the  conjunction. 

All  modifiers  are  placed  on  lines  which  slant  from  the  words 
they  modify. 

Note  : — This  form  for  diagraming  sentences  is  adopted  from  Reed 
and  Kellogg's  Grammar. 


C.  The  Sentence:  Essentials  and  Modifiers 


(1)  What  the  Essential  Parts  of  a  Sentence  May  Be 

A  noun,  or  a  noun  with  its  modifiers. 
A  pronoun  or  a  pronoun  with  its  modifiers. 
An  infinitive  with  ''to"  or  an  infinitive  in 
(a)  The  subject  may  be  j  "ing,"  simple  or  modified. 

An  infinitive  phrase  with  "  to  "  or  in  "  ing," 

simple  or  modified. 
A  noun-clause  with  its  modifiers. 


(b)  The  verb  may  be 


{Transitive    [  Active  voice 
j  or 

Intransitive    Passive  voice 


Verb-phrase 


Transitive    [  Active  voice 

j  or 

Intransitive    Passive  voice 


158 


APPENDIX 


^  Object  comple- 
ment may  be 


(c)  The  complement 
may  be 


Attribute  of  the 
subject  may  be 


Attribute  of  the 
object  may  be 


^  A  noun,  or  a  noun  with  its 
modifiers. 

A  pronoun  or  a  pronoun 
with  its  modifiers. 

An  infinitive  in  "ing," 
simple  or  modified. 

An  infinitive  phrase,  sim- 
ple or  modified. 

A  noun-clause  with  its 
modifiers. 

A  noun,  or  a  noun  with  its 
modifiers. 

A  pronoun,  or  a  pronoun 
with  its  modifiers. 

An  adjective,  simple  or 
modified. 

An  infinitive  in  "ing,"  sim- 
ple or  modified. 

An  infinitive  phrase  in 
"ing"  or  with  "to,"  sim- 
ple or  modified. 

A  noun-clause  with  its 
modifiers. 


Like  the  object. 


APPENDIX 


159 


(2)  What  May  Modify  the  Essential  Parts  of  the 

Sentence 


(a)  The  subject  may  be 
modified  by 


An  adjective 

A  possessive  pronoun  used  adjectively 
A  participle 

A  single  infinitive  phrase 
A  prepositional  phrase 
An  adjective  clause 

A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  used  in  apposi- 
tion 


(b)  The  verb  may  be 
modified  by 


An  adverb 

A  prepositional  phrase  used  adverbially 
An  infinitive  phrase  used  adverbially 
A  clause  used  adverbially 


(c)  The  complement 
may  be  modified 

by 


An  adjective 

A  possessive  pfonoun  used  adjectively 
A  participle 

A  simple  infinitive  phrase 
An  adjective  clause 

A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  used  in  apposi- 
tion 
A  prepositional  phrase. 


D.  Parsing 


To  parse  a  word  means  to  tell  all  about  its  grammatical 
meaning  and  use;  that  is,  to: 

1.  Classify — give  part  of  speech. 

2.  Give  its  modifications. 

3.  Tell  how  it  is  used. 

4.  Tell  by  what  rule  it  is  governed. 


Noun 


When  we  parse  a  word  we  tell: — 

Kind — common,  proper,  etc. 

Person 

Gender 

Number 

Case 

Use — (rule) 


Pronoun 


Kind 


Form 


Use 
(Rule) 


Personal 

Relative 

Demonstrative 

Interrogative 

Indefinite 

Person  (personal) 
Gender  (personal,  relative) 
Number  (personal,  indefinite, 

tive,  relative) 
Case  (all  kinds) 

Subject,  object,  complement 
Relating  function  (relative) 
,  Agreement  with  antecedent 


demons  tra- 


APPENDIX 


161 


Verb 


Kind 


Transitive 
Intransitive 


Conjugation 

Principal  parts 

Voice 

Mode 

Tense 

Person 

Number 


Regular 
Irregular 


Verbals 


Kind 

Voice 
Tense 
Use 


Infinitive— with  "to,"  or  in  "ing" 
Participle — present  or  past 


Adjective 


Kind 


f  Article 
Limiting      {  Numeral 

[  Pronominal 

Descriptive  I  ^^^'^^ 


Form  j  Comparison 
Use     1  Degree 


#i" 


Adverb 


[  Simple 
Kind      Conjunctive 
[  Responsive 

Form  j  Comparison 
Use      I  Degree 


162 


APPENDIX 


Preposition 


Kind   |^™Pl«     , 
[  Compound 

The  relation  shown 
Words  related 


Conjunction 


Kind    I  Coordinating 
I  Subordinating 

(  Words 
Parts  joined  i  Phrases 
[  Clauses 


Interjection    j  Name_^^ 


INDEX 


Absolute  Phrase,  23,  130 
Adjectives,  5,  80 

Articles,  81 

Care  in  use  of,  89-90 

Classes  of,  80 

Comparison  of,  86-88 

Compound  Adjectives,  84 

Definition  of,  5,  80 

Descriptive,  80,  83 

Interrogative,  80,  82 

Limiting,  80,  82 

Numerals,  81,  82 

Pronominal  Adjectives,  80,  82 

Proper  Adjectives,  83 
Adverbs,  5,  93-94     ' 

Care  in  use  of,  93 

Classes  of,  93 

Comparison  of,  94-95 

Conjunctive  Adverbs,  97 

Conjunctive  Connectives,   122 

Correct  use  of  Negatives,  96- 
97 

Definition  of,  93-94 

Distinction  between  Adjectives 
and  Adverbs,  94-96 

Interrogative,    96 

Modal  Adverbs,  96 

Responsives,  97 

Subordinating         Conjunctive 
Adverbs,  98 
Agreement    of   Collective    Noun 

and  Verb,  74 
Agreement  of  Pronoun,  38 

163 


Agreement     of     Subject     and 

Verb,  73 
Agreement  of  Verb  in  Number, 

Person,  Tense,  73-74 
Alone,  98 

Analysis  of  the  Sentence,  137 
Antecedent,  35,  38 
Apposition,  23-24,  131 
Attribute  Complement,  84,  131 
Auxiliaries,  47,  53-54,  56 


B 

Be,    Conjugation    of,    151-153 
Copulative  Verb,  51 
Regular  Auxiliary  of  Passive, 
54 


Care  in  Punctuating  Sentences, 

123 
Case  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns,  21 

Nominative,  22-23,  31,  33-34 

Objective,  23-24,  31 

Possessive,  24-25,  26,  27,  31 
Compound  Possessive,  25 
Clauses,  130 

Adjective,  131 

Adverbial,    132 

Dependent,  130 

Independent,  130 

Noun,  130 

Use  of  Subordinating  Clauses, 
130-132 


164 


INDEX 


Complements,  2,  159 

Attribute,  84 

Indirect  Object,  24 

Object,  84 

Objective,  84 
Compound  Elements,  121 

Complements,  121 

Modifiers,   121 

Predicate,   121 

Sentence,  121-122 

Subject,  121 
Conjugation,  143-153 
Conjunctions,  5,  112 

Adverbs  as  Conjunctions,  115 

Conjunctive  Connectives,  112, 
113,  114 

Conjunctions  both  Coordinat- 

•  ing  and  Subordinating,  114 

Correct   use   of   Conjunctions, 
117-118 

Correlative    conjunctions,    114 

Distinctions    in    the    use    of 
Subordinating     Conjunctive 
Adverbs,  98 

Phrase  Conjunctions,  115 
Connectives,  3,  122 
Copulative,  50-51 


D 


Diagraming,   154-156 
Disjunctive  Connectives,  122 
Double  Negative,  96-97 


E 

Either,  Neither,  40,  90 
Essentials  of  the  Sentence,   157 
Except,  118 
Expletive,  6 


F 


Few,  Little,  89 


G 


Gender,  12-13 

Go,  Conjugated,  143-146 

Good,  Well,  98 

Grammar  Defined,  1 

Grammatical  Phrases,  128-130 


I 


Interjection,  3,  5,  111 


Little,  89 


M 


Make,  Conjugation  of,  146-151 

May,  54 

Might,  54 

Mode,  48,  56-59 
Imperative,  48,  59 
Indicative,  48,  57-58 
Subjunctive,  48,  57,  58 

Modifiers,  3,  120 

Must,  54 

N 

Nouns,  5,  10,  11 
Abstract,  11 
Case,  22-31 
Collective,  11 
Common,  11 
Gender,  12-13 

Common,  13 

Feminine,  13 

Masculine,  13 

Neuter,  13 


INDEX 


165 


Nouns  —  ContiniLed 
Number,  14-21 

Plural,  14-19,  20 

Singular,  14-19,  20 
Predicate  Noun,  23 
Proper  Noun,  10 

O 

Only,  98 

Other,  88 

Ought,  54 

Outline  Summaries  of, 

Adjectives,  92 

Adverbs,  101 

Clauses,  130 

Conjunctions,  119 

Modifiers  of  Essential  Parts  of 
Sentences,  159 

Nouns,  31 

Parsing,  160-162 

Phrases,   128-130 

Prepositions,  110 

Pronouns,  45 

Skeleton  outline,  9 

Verbs,  79 


Parsing,  160-162 
Parts-of-Speech,  3-8 
Potential  Auxiliaries,  54-55 
Practice  in  use  of, 
Adjectives,  84-87,    90-91,  94, 

96,  98-100 
Adverbs,  95-96,  98-100 
Analysis  of  Sentences,  135-142 
Auxiliaries,  56 
Case  of  Nouns,  26-30,  38 
Nominative,  26-30 
Objective,  27-30 
Possessive,    25-30 


Practice  in  use  of — Contimied 
Clauses,  132 
Comparison  of  Adjectives  and 

Adverbs,  90-91 
Conjunctions,  115-117,  118 
Expletives,  6-7 
Gender,  14,  20-21 
Infinitives  and  Participles,  62- 

64 
Limiting  Adjectives,  83 
Mode;  Subjunctive,  58-59 
Nouns,     11-12,     13-14,     18- 

21 
Number,  18-21 
Parts-of-Speech,  7-8 
Prepositions,    103-104,     106- 

109 
Pronouns,  38-39,  41-44 

Demonstrative,  39 

Indefinite,  41 

Interrogative,  39 

Personal,  39,  42^3-44 
Sentences,  126-128,  133-134 
Tense,  67-70 
Verbals,  62-64 
Verb  Forms,  72-73 
Verbs,  51-53, 56,  58-59, 67-68, 

69-71,  74,  75,  77,  78. 
Predicate,  2,  120 
Compound,  2 
Simple,  2 
Prepositions,  5,  102-110 
Compound,  102 
Correct  use  of,  104-110 
Definition  of,  102 
Idiomatic,  102 
Pronouns,  4-5, 32 
Antecedents,  35,  38 
Classes  of. 

Compound   Personal,  34 

Compound  Relative,  35-36 


166 


INDEX 


Pronouns — Continued 
Classes  of, 
Demonstrative,  32,  37,  45 
Distinctions  in  use  of  Rela- 
tive Pronouns,  35 
Indefinite,  32,  37-40,  45 
Interrogative,  32,  34,  45 
Personal,  32,  34,  45 
Relative,  32,  35,  41,  45 
Punctuation,  123,  124,  125 


Q 

Quotations,    Rules    for    use    of, 
125 


R 


Responsives,  97 


S 

Sentences,  1-3,  120-121 
Complex,  122 
Compound,  122 
Declarative,   124-125 
Exclamatory,  124-125 
Imperative,  12-4-125 
Simple,  121 

Shall,  55-56 

Should,  55 

Some;  Somewhat,  98 


Tense,  48,  54,  65-67 

Difficulties  in  use  of,  68 
There,  6 

V 

Verbals,  47,  60-64,  68 
Infinitives,  61-64,  129 
Participles,  61,  68,  79 

Verb  Forms,  49,  53,  71-72 
Emphatic,  49,  71-72 
Progressive,  49,  71-72 

Verbs,  46^7,  79 
Agreement  of,  73-74 
AuxiHaries,  47,  53-54 
Conjugation,  143-153 
Copulative,  50-51 
Intransitive,  47,  50,  53 
Irregular,  76 
Principal  Parts,  75-76 
Regular,  76 
Transitive,  47,  49-50 

Voice,  Active  and  Passive,  48, 
50,  60-61,  67,  79,  149 


W 


Which,  35,  37 
Who,  35,  37 
Win,  55,  56 
Would,  55,  56 


You,  74 


»l 


rd  Jb4^7 


460008 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


